ZOO01: General Zoology

st
1 Semester, AY 2021-2022

Unit 1: The Birth of Zoology

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 Unit 1: The Birth of Zoology

MODULE 1
Historical background and Development
of the Science of Zoology

Study Goals

1. Discuss the different theories of life

2. Discuss the beginnings of Zoology
3. Discuss the different subdivisions of Zoology

Where does Life Begin?

When biology is being introduced, the first questions are always, when the
existence of life does begin and Where/How life begins? As we study deeper in Biology,
we know that by using fossils and radiometric researches, we could have a concrete
answer for the “When” question. However, answering Where and How, are too tricky,
because until now, less is understood about the existence of life and there is still no
exact explanation of where life begins. Several theories were proposed on the possible
beginnings of life on Earth. The most common theories are the Spontaneous theory,
Biogenesis Theory, Evolutionary Theory, Panspermia Theory, Deep-Sea Hydrothermal
Vent Theory, and Theory of Divine Creation. What we will be focusing on our
discussion, however, are three hypotheses/experiments that are not much talked about
but are also presented and considered in the scientific community. Let us have a look at
each hypothesis:

1. Oparin-Haldane hypothesis
This hypothesis suggests that life came from inorganic molecules (abiogenesis),
forming first building blocks, then combined to make complex polymers like nucleic
acids and proteins, which are central structural and functional components of living
organisms.
This idea was separately proposed by a Russian scientist, Aleksandr Oparin,
and English scientist John Burdon Sanderson Haldane in the 1920s. Their concept

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was then known as the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis or most called the “primordial soup
theory”.
In cooking a soup, we mix the noodles, vegetables, and other spices to the
water, then introduced it to heat (this is not exactly the correct sequence of cooking
soup, though). This is the same idea that Oparin and Haldane had proposed. They
believed that with the help of heat from sun, lightning, or UV rays, the simple inorganic
compounds reacted and form more complex compounds. These compounds may also
have been accumulated in the ocean, making a “primordial soup”.

2. Urey-Miller Experiment
If you were to ask, would you believe in the
hypothesis proposed by Oparin and Haldane? Would there
be proof of life that came from non-living things? To
answer these questions, one scientist, Stanley Miller,
together with his supervisor, Nobel laureate Harold Urey,
designed an apparatus that can test the hypothesis of
Oparin and Haldane. As shown in Figure 1, different gases
such as water, hydrogen, methane, and ammonia were
introduced in a closed apparatus. The mixture was
subjected to a high voltage electric charge for a week,
while the water is simultaneously heated. The products Figure 1. Urey-Miller experiment set-up
were accumulated in a water trap below a water-cooled
condenser.
The experiment of Miller-Urey showed promising results that interest many
scientists in their field. Primary substances such as carbon monoxide, Nitrogen, organic
molecules: aldehydes and cyanides, and amino acids: glycine and alanine, were formed.
The resulting substances were formed primarily by living organisms, which is why Urey-
Miller’s experiment had also been a great mark in the scientific field and a center of
debate during those times.

3. RNA World hypothesis

Ribonucleic acid or RNA is more known today as a protein synthesizer. However,
many scientists were also looking on a view that RNA, and not DNA, could be the first
genetic material. RNA also has the characteristic of being a catalyst, known as
ribozymes. It was believed that this catalyst can replicate itself and passed on the
genetic material from one generation to the next. Research is still going on for this
hypothesis as until now, there is no concrete proof of a self-replicating RNA molecule.

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Check this link for more information about the Oparin-Haldane

hypothesis and Miller-Urey’s experiment

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/history-of-life-on-
earth/history-life-on-earth/a/hypotheses-about-the-origins-of-life

Study Assessment
Question 1.1
In what way are the following hypotheses considered acceptable? Unacceptable?

1. Oparin-Haldane Theory

2. Urey-Miller Experiment

3. RNA World Hypothesis

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Characteristics of Living Things

Organisms were systematically categorized based on their characteristics. So,
where do we start? If you are referring to the title, well yes, of course, you are right.
After we finished discussing the possible beginnings of life, it is also important to give a
glimpse of how we can consider a ‘thing’, a living organism. The following are a list of
characteristics of living things. Let me walk you through it and you may want to assess if
you possess these characteristics and finally say, “Ah! Yes! I am living thing!”

1. Order- living organisms are considered highly organized. Cells (the basic unit of
life), composes the tissues, which are then composing the organ and so on.
These structures are highly coordinated and are functioning systematically.
2. Movement- All living things can move. Animals are moving by walking/running,
crawling, or swimming. While plants may move in the reaction to a stimulus.
3. Sensitivity- organisms are responsive to stimuli. They can generally react to
chemicals (chemotaxis) or in light (phototaxis in plants)
4. Growth and Development- unlike non-living things, which can only grow with
the help of external force (accretion), living things, on the other hand, can grow
and show some development in their different body systems. The growth of an
organism is also based on code instructions of their genes, that is, to ensure that
the growing individual will exhibit characteristics from its parents.
5. Regulation- An organism can have internal conditions balance (homeostasis)
despite environmental changes.
6. Energy Processing- Organisms need some source of energy to continue living.
They are using this energy for cellular processes like taking in food (cellular
respiration). Plants are also using energy to process their food (photosynthesis).
7. Reproduction- A living organism may be produced employing either asexual or
sexual reproduction. By reproduction, it should be able to pass on the genetic
information from the parents to their offspring.

So, did you pass the test? If you are, then Congratulations! You are a living thing! 😊
Now, since you are a living thing, and belongs to a higher order, I think you can easily
perform the activity I prepared for you. Have a look and enjoy your first activity!

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Activity 1.1. Beyond Reach

Go around your home and look for at least 10 living things that you may
find. In the tabulated form provided in the next page, write in the 1 st column
the name of the things/organisms you found and in the second column,
write the most obvious characteristic that made you decide it is a living
thing.

Activity 1.1 Beyond Reach (Answer sheet)

Living things Characteristic/s

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Nicely done! Please do not forget to bring your activity in our meeting as we are
going to discuss your answers. If you are into offline learning, we will be having our
discussion during consultation hours on the mode of communication you preferred
😊

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History and Nature of Zoology

Now that we have recalled the beginnings and characteristics of life, we can
now discuss in detail about Zoology. If you hear the term, Zoology, how will you
describe it? Pause for a while. Try to expound your answer on your own. Do you
already have the answer? Hang onto it for a little longer because, in a few whiles, we
are going to explore more about zoology. For now, let us dig in a little deeper on where
and how the birth of zoology started.

In the written literatures, there were three episodes in the history of zoology:
The Ancient Science, the medieval period, and the early modern era. Fasten your
seatbelt, as we are going to travel back in time to better understand the beginnings of
Zoology.

1. Ancient Science
Aristotle was known for his writings and records about animals during ancient
times. He wrote De Animalibus, which gained so much credit from the scientific
community and made him the Father of Zoology.

Meanwhile, observations were already

evident long before the works of Aristotle. The
Cro-Magnons, who lived 50,000 to 25,000
years ago, used to etch and sketch in the
caves to show the different animals present
during those times. The cave sketch in Figure
2 was found in 1873 in the Cave of Lortet, in
France.

Figure 2. One of the oldest paints found in

Chauvet cave, in France (image
source: PALAEOLITIC, 2005)
2. Medieval Period
The medieval period is known as the dark ages in the field of science and
technology. However, Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great) contributed so much in the
field of zoology. He was able to translate the book of Aristotle’s De Animalibus into the
English language. Though he translated the book, his writings are different from

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Aristotle’s since he added more updated information and observations resulting in 22

books with different topics related to humans and animals.

3. Early and Modern Age

With the contributions made by Aristotle and Magnus, several scientists followed
their footsteps and continue to learn and record recent observations and researches
about zoology. Pierre Belon, for example, created several comparative anatomical
structures between humans and birds. The scientific community was amazed by how
similar the human body system is to some of the animals that Belon had
drawn/presented in his books (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Pierre Belon's sketches of

human and bird
skeletons.
(Image source: Zoological
Beginnings, nd)

Conrad Gesner, another scientist, published a five-volume bibliography of plants

and animals, entitled History Animalum. As years passed, and technology got better,
more scientists were able to record and produce more substantial data about zoology. A
more known scientist, which you probably heard a lot, is Robert Hooke. Using a
microscope, he was able to identify and gave the name “cell” to a “hollow block” that
he observed from a cork tree sample. Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist
known for his development of the microscope which led to the discoveries of more
minute animals. Further, scientists and researchers were able to study the depth of
physiology of animals concerning their anatomy.
Development and progress in the research arena about animals grew
uncontrollably as we are heading to the modern age. More technologies that can be

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used, more answers were acquired, yet more questions puzzled us. Until now, we are
still on the battlefield of knowing every why, when, where, what, and especially how in
the field of zoology.

Study Assessment
Question 1.2

In your own words, among the three episodes discussed, which do you think
contributes the most in the foundation of studying zoology?

Principal Subdivisions of Zoology

One of the major divisions under Biology is Zoology: the study of animals.
Underneath zoology, there are still vast areas or subdivisions, to where you can explore
and focus your study (That is if you are, and will be, interested in studying further in this
field of science). Let us take a look at some of the principal subdivisions of zoology.

1. Anthrozoology- the study of the interaction between humans and other

animals

2. Archaeozoology- the study of dead animals (faunal remains). Also known as

zooarchaeology
3. Bionics- the study of mechanical systems that function like living
organisms or parts of living organisms

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4. Embryology- the study of prenatal development of gametes (also known

as sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and
fetuses
5. Entomology- study of insects
6. Ethology- the study of animal behavior under their natural habitats and
studying their behavior as an adaptive trait in evolution

7. Helminthology- the study of parasitic worms (helminths) and deals with the
taxonomy of helminth and the effect on their hosts.
8. Herpetology- the study of reptiles and amphibians.
9. Histology- microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of animals and
plants

10. Ichthyology- study of fish

11. Malacology- the study of animals under Mollusca (molluscs)

12. Mammalogy- the study of mammals and their characteristics. Mammalogy
is also referred to as Mastology, Theriology, or Therology.

13. Morphology- the study of the form and structure of organisms and their
specific structural features.

14. Ornithology- the study of birds

15. Paleozoology- the study of fossil animals to identify multi-cellular animals
from a geological perspective to establish prehistoric
environments and their ecosystems.
16. Pathology- the study of bodily fluids in the laboratory such as blood,
urine, or tissues to diagnose a disease.
17. Protozoology- study of protozoa

18. Taxonomy- a study that defines groups of biological organisms based on

shared characteristics and giving names to those groups
19. Zoogeography- the study of the geographical distribution of animal species
in the world.
20. Zootomy- the study of animal anatomy.

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To know more subdivisions under the field of zoology you may

visit this site:
https://www.bioexplorer.net/divisions_of_biology/zoology/

Activity 1.2. ZooPie

The figure below shows a pizza with multi-flavored toppings. The
flavors of the toppings are some examples representing a
particular subdivision in zoology. Divide it equally and distribute it
to the eight students namely Ichty, Archy, Helm, Zoogy, Mala,
Taxon, Prozo, and Entmo. These students are quite picky though.
If you studied our previous subtopic on subdivisions of zoology
well, you may find a hint on what toppings of the pizza that they
are most likely to choose.

Activity 1.2 ZooPie (Answer sheet)

Chanos
Genera
fossil
Ascaris

Asia
clams Culex

Giardia
dia

Name of the student Flavored toppings

Ichty
Archy
Helm
Zoogy
Mala
Taxon
Prozo
Entmo

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Well done for finishing your activity! Don’t forget to bring this with you on our scheduled
meeting for some more discussions. Again, if you are into offline learning, refer to the
assigned schedule on when we can communicate and discuss this activity 😊

Summary

In this module, the different theories on the origin of life were recalled. Three
specific theories and/or experiments were tackled: Oparin-Haldane Theory, Urey-
Miller experiment and the RNA world hypothesis. We also had a review about the
different characteristics shared by living things.
Further, to formally introduced zoology, we did some digging in the ancient
times, medieval period and towards to modern era, to see where could have been
the start of studying zoology. It was noted that there are famous scientists like
Aristotle and Albert Magnus who contributed so much of their knowledge and skills
in the scientific community. All of their contributions were regarded as a great
foundation on the field of Zoology. As there are lots of improvements made in the
field of sciences, vast of subdivisions were created under Zoology. Some of the
most common subdivisions were also mentioned in this module.

Great job for finishing this module! You may want to rest your eyes for a moment and
grab a snack. In module 2, you will get to know more about the Chemistry of life.

References:
Branches of Zoology. (2020). Retrieved from Bio Explorer: Exploring Life on Earth:
https://www.bioexplorer.net/divisions_of_biology/zoology/
Characteristics of Living Things. (2020). Retrieved from Science Learning Hub:
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/14-characteristics-of-living-things
Hordijk, W. (2019, August 13). How Did Life Begin? Retrieved from Orbiter:
https://orbitermag.com/how-did-life-begin-part-
2/?fbclid=IwAR2w6lE8gVNtmBVEmsyShdu8jAKgDxDL_HNfdGPauWZesjlPPaW
E-AJNv0s

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Hypotheses about the origins of life. (2020). Retrieved from Khan Academy:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/history-of-life-on-earth/history-life-
on-earth/a/hypotheses-about-the-origins-of-life
Remmel, E. (n.d.). Zoology: an introduction to history and evolution. Oklahoma: Google
Sites.

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MODULE 2
The Chemistry of Life

Study goals

1. Discuss the different parts of the animal cells

2. Describe the cell membranes and animal tissues
3. Discuss the process involved in the animal cell division

Cell: The Basic Unit of Life

The discovery of cells by Robert Hooke led to the understanding of so many
things about life. Our basic biology courses taught us about the Cell Theory, stating
that all living things are composed primarily of cells. Further, both plant and animal cells
possess some similar structures that enable them to properly execute their function as a
whole. Since our course is Zoology, we will only be focusing on discussing animal cells
and other life processes that revolve around it.

Animal Cells
Animal cells have a true and distinct nucleus; thus, they are categorized as
Eukaryotes (Figure 4). It is larger and more complex than the Prokaryotes (you may
want to review the similarities and differences between the two types of cells to give you
a better view of our topic in this module). Table 1 presented below, are the different
organelles of the animal cells with its corresponding functions:

Figure 4. Typical Animal Cell

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Table 1. Animal cell organelles with its respective functions

Organelles Function/s

1. cytoskeleton Gives shape to the cell, allow cell

movement and enables the movement
of organelles

2. cell membrane Encloses the contents of the cell;

Allows transport via diffusion and
osmosis

3. nucleus Controls the activity of the cell

4. ribosomes Protein synthesis

5. Endoplasmic reticulum Provides a surface for the synthesis of

material – Proteins in RER and Lipids
in SER; Transport of materials from
one cell to other.

6. Golgi apparatus Packaging and transport of materials

7. Mitochondria The powerhouse of the cell; main seat

of respiration

8. vacuoles Assist in the process of exocytosis

and endocytosis

9. lysosomes Intracellular digestion of food in

unicellular organisms.

10. centrioles Helps in the formation of spindle fibers

that separate the chromosomes
during cell division

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Study Assessment
Question 2.1
Which do you think has the most important feature/role among the organelles of
an animal cell?

Animal Tissues
Tissues are a group of similar cells performing the same functions. There are
four main types of animal tissues which are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Function and Illustrations of the four main types of animal tissues
Animal tissue Function Sketch

1. Epithelial tissue Primarily for protection; it also

aids in the absorption of
nutrients in the intestine; Cilia,
which is an accessory in the
epithelial tissue helps in
transporting substances along a
tube; it also acts as a filter in
kidneys; helps in gas exchange
in lungs and secretion of various
substances e.g. sweat, mucous,
etc.

2.Connective tissue Characterized by the presence of

extracellular matrix.
It serves as glue, support and
movement, nutrient storage,
temperature homeostasis, and
transport.

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Adipose tissue- energy, storage,

insulation and cushioning
Hyaline cartilage- structural
support and has cushioning
properties
Bone tissue- structural support,
protection, and mineral
(calcium) storage
3. Muscular tissue Functions for the contraction of
muscles.
Skeletal muscle- attached to
bones
Smooth muscle- muscles in the
walls of hollow organs that show
involuntary movements to propel
fluids or materials through the
organs

Cardiac muscle- muscles that

are present in the heart. It has an
intercalated disk that serves as
cellular communication for the
coordination beating of the heart.

4. Nervous tissue specialized for communication

and composes the brain, spinal
cord, and peripheral nerves

Know more about animal tissues by clicking this link:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ncx7FOKFd5-
M_WeVeAqkXKho9aA3yQBN/view?usp=sharing

This is also available in Appendix A.1

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Before we proceed with the next subtopic of this module, you may want to stand
up for a while, stretch your arms and legs. You will be needing this as you will have to
read some literature that can support your answer in the next activity. Have fun learning!
😊

Activity 2.1 Research Time

Refer to the research article in appendix B section. Create a

summary research report about the article. Write your report in
the answer sheet box provided. You are free to consult me
during consultation hours for some clarification about the
activity. Make sure that you have understood the article. This
activity will be part of our discussion in our next
meeting/communication.

Activity 2.1 Research Time

(Answer sheet)

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Cell division
Previously, we talked about similar cells joined together to form a tissue.
These tissues will now become an organ that eventually will form an organ system,
which composes an organism. You see, this is the level of organization of life, which
also happens to be one of the characteristics of a living thing. But how does this
continuity of development happen to form an organism? The answer: Cell division.

Cell division in the organism’s body involves mitosis. It has four major stages:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase (Table 3). Before we discuss the
major events in these phases, let us first investigate the process before mitosis: The
Interphase. The interphase is also known as the resting stage. Can you think of an idea
of why it is called the resting stage? To help you answer the question, let me discuss
further what is happening during the interphase. There are three steps during this
phase: G1 phase, S phase, and the G2 phase. The cells grow and make copies of the
organelles in the first gap (G1) phase, it will then synthesize a complete copy of the
DNA in its nucleus during the Synthesize phase (S phase), followed by the second gap
(G2) phase wherein the cells grow more, making proteins and organelles, and
reorganizing in preparation for the mitosis cycle.
Table 3. Events during the four phases of Cell division
Stages Events Illustration
Prophase Structures appeared:
chromosomes
Spindle fibers

Structures disappeared:
Nuclear envelope
nucleolus

Metaphase The chromosomes aligned at the

metaphase plate; two kinetochores
of each chromosome are attached
to microtubules from opposite poles

Anaphase Stage of separation and migration

the kinetochore pulls the
chromosomes towards the pole.

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Telophase Structures appeared:

Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus

Structures disappeared:
chromosomes
Spindle fibers
*Cytokinesis The division of the cytoplasm to
form two new daughter cells
(overlaps in the final stages of
mitosis: anaphase or telophase).
In an animal cell, the cleavage
furrow is pinching the cell to be
divided into two, with the help of a
protein called actin

The new daughter cells formed,

may now proceed to undergo
mitosis cycle producing more
copies of their own.

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Study Assessment
Question 2.2

Briefly answer the following questions:

1. Explain the role of mitosis in the human body?

2. Why do the chromosomes need to separate during the anaphase?

3. How many chromosomes are present in a cell during prophase? Metaphase?

Anaphase? Telophase?

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Summary

In this module, we successfully discussed the basic unit of life: The cell.
The different organelles were described, together with its individual functions.
Though these organelles have their specific role to play, their functions are linked
with each other. It proves that the cell has an organize way of performing its
functions.
Now, as the cell grouped together, they are forming tissues. Four main
types of tissues were discussed: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular and Nervous
tissues. Further, how the cells make copy of itself were discussed in the topic:
Cell Division. Interphase was introduced, as a process performed by the cell prior
to the four main stages of cell division. It is called as resting stage since there are
no visible development or event during this phase. On contrast by how it is called,
however, three steps are being performed during Interphase: first gap (G1)
phase, Synthesis (S) phase and the second gap (G2) phase. Following
interphase, mitotic division follows: Prophase (appearance of chromosomes and
disappearance of the nuclear envelope), Metaphase (chromosome alignment),
Anaphase (separation and migration of the chromosomes) and the Telophase
(reappearance of the nuclear envelope and the disappearance of the
chromosomes). In the last stages of mitosis (Anaphase or telophase), cytokinesis
is happening, wherein the cytoplasm is being pinched on the center side via
cleavage furrow (with the help form a protein called actin). The end product of this
process are two new daughter cells, which can/may proceed to another cell
division.

Congratulations on finishing module 2! How are you keeping up? Please feel free to
contact me on the scheduled consultation hours if you have any concerns or clarification
about the discussion in this module. You may also raise your questions during our
meeting. But before you take a break, answer the Unit Assessment to test if you were
able to grasp the idea/concepts in this Unit.

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References:
Phases of the Cell Cycle. (2020). Retrieved from Khan Academy:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-
biology/mitosis/a/cell-cycle-phases
Ziser. (2016). Introduction to Zoology. Retrieved from Biol 1413: General Zoology:
https://www.austincc.edu/sziser/Biol%201413/LectureNotes/lnexamI/Animals-
Intro%201413.pdf

Unit Assessment

I. Short answer: Concisely answer each question. Type your answer on the space
provided below each question.

1. How would you differentiate the Oparin-Haldane theory with the Urey-Miller
experiment?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. The History of Zoology took place long before the Ancient times. Briefly discuss the
main events on each episode and indicate the most important contribution at each
time.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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3. In one sentence only, describe the events happening in each phase of cell division.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

II. Matching Type. For each subtest, match the terms in Column A with the given
examples in Column B.
A. Characteristics of Living Things
A B

___1. Reproduction a. digestion

___2. Sensitivity b. Male birds expose their colorful

plumage to attract female birds

___3. Growth and Development c. Phylum

___4. Order d. butterfly metamorphosis

___5. Energy processing e. binary fission

B. Subdivisions of Zoology
A B

___1. Ornithology a. Ascaris

___2. Zootomy b. Amoeba

___3. Protozoology c. Kingfisher

___4. Zoogeography d. structure of ruminant’s stomach

___5. Helminthology e. Cloud rats in Mount Banahaw

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C. Animal Cells and Tissues

A B
___1. Mitochondria a. essential for hibernating animals

___2. Centrioles b. aids in transmitting signals

___3. Nervous tissue c. helps in the cell division by organizing

the spindle fibers during anaphase

___4. Adipose tissue d. a semi-permeable structure that forms

the outside of the cell
___5. Cell membrane e. responsible for cellular respiration and
production of ATP in the cell

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