I.

Introduction

The Nature of Science

Definition of Terms

Science ( L. scientia - knowledge) – a body of systemized facts and knowledge as tested and verified by human
experience. It embraces imperfectly comprehended truths, probabilities, theories and hypothesis.

Facts - particularly truths that are recognized as such without fear or doubt. They are actual occurrences which
are usually comprehended as a result of observation and experimentation.

Hypotheses - suppositions or generalizations which are likely explanation of a definite series of facts. They are
not mere speculations for they are based on careful observations and experiments. They are the first set of
conclusions leading to the establishment of a principle.

Theories - conclusions based upon facts as far as they are known. They have a greater certainty than
hypotheses and try to explain observed phenomena and the relationships between them.

Principles - conclusions or general truths which are established with certainty by inference from adequate and
apparently true facts.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- established principle through a logical, organized method of study

The ultimate goal of intellectual pursuit is to establish true conclusions without fear or doubt.
1. Problem
2. Collection of information
3. hypothesis- an educated guess
- statement that can be tested
4. Experiment- test of variable
5. Recording of Observation-
6. Drawing Conclusion- through data

Once the facts are established, various hypotheses are formulated. Each hypothesis is tested thru
additional experiments. The favorable hypothesis now becomes a theory. When the theory is proved to be a
correct conclusion, it becomes a principle of the science in question. Some principles are considered as natural
laws.

Natural laws - laws of nature which describe some inherent property or mode of operation of specific natural
agents. They imply that matter and energy will always follow definitely knowable and predictable courses of action
under the proper conditions.

FIELD OF SCIENCE

I. Natural Sciences- deal with nature

A. Physical Sciences- treat on a limited phase of the material universe.
1. Chemistry - deals with matter
2. Physics - deals with energy
3. Mathematics - deals with numbers
4. Astronomy - deals with heavenly bodies
5. Geology - deals with the earth’s crust or structure
6. Meteorology - deals with the conditions of the atmosphere
7. Physiography - deals with the external configuration of the earth

B. Biological Sciences- deals with the study of life

1. Botany - the study of plants(flora)

2. Zoology - the study of animals(fauna)

II. Social Sciences- deal with human relations

1. Sociology - deals with society
2. History - deals with records
3. Political Science - deals with government and politics
4. Philosophy - deals with logic and reason

Question1:
1. Define science at your own word (3 sentences). (5 pts)
2. Compare Hypothesis from Experiment, (5 pts)
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BIOLOGY
Biology (bios - life; logus – discourse) - the study of plants and animals
Protista - an organism with both plant and animal characteristics
-Ex. Euglena

A. Euglena as plant
1. with chlorophyll and thus can manufacture its own food
2. has cellulose which only plants have
B. Euglena as an animals
1. has an eye spot- botanists call this stigma
- can distinguish light from darkness
2. can locomote from one place to another by means of a whip-like flagellum
3. has a mouth which it uses for eating
4. loses its chlorophyll when placed in the dark, and thus feeds thru its mouth

ZOOLOGY (zoon-animal; logus- discourse) - the study of animals

Divisions of Zoology
I. Structural Zoology- deals with structures
1. Morphology (morpho- form)- the study of structure as to form and shape especially viewed as a
whole
2. Anatomy (ana-up; temno- cut)- The study of the different structures of organisms especially
revealed through dissection.
3. Histology (histos-tissues)- the study of microstructures and functions of tissues
4. Cytology (kyto- hollow)- the study of structures and functions within the cell

II. Developmental Zoology - deals with development

5. Embryology (en- in; bryo- swell) – the study of growth and development within the fertilized egg
Homologous structures - structures having the same embryonic origin but different functions
- Ex. the arms of man, flippers of the whale, wings of aves, fins of fishes and
forelimbs of the cats are all derived from the anterior limb bud.
Analogous structures - structures having different embryonic origins bur the same function.
- Ex. The lungs of man, the swim bladder of Dipnoi or lung fishes, gills of sharks,
trachea of insects and epidermis of frogs all function for respiration but their
embryonic origins are different
6. Ontogeny (ont- being; gen- become)- the study of the development of the individual.
7. Genetics (genesis- nature) – the study of heredity and variation.

III. Functional Zoology

1.Animal Physiology ( physis –nature)- the study of living processes or functions within animals.
2.Animal behavior with regards to stimuli.
Stimuli - factors in the environment which cause an organism to respond.
Irritability - the capacity or ability of an organism to respond or react to stimuli.
Taxis (animals) or Tropism (plants)- the automatic directing towards or away from the source
of the stimuli. The reaction may be positive or negative.

Types of taxis or tropism

a. thigmotaxis or thigmotropism - response to contact or pressure or touch
b. thermotaxis or thermotropism - response to temperature
c. heliotaxis or heliotropism - response to sunlight
d. phototaxis or phototropism - response to artificial light
e. galvanotaxis or galvanotropism - response to electricity
f. geotaxis or geotropism - response to gravity
g. rheotaxis or rheotropism - response to air or water current
h. hydrotaxis or hydrotropism - response to water
i. chemotaxis or chemotropism- response to chemicals
j. chromotaxis or chromotropism- response to color

IV. Systematic Zoology or Taxonomy (taxis- arrangement; nomos- law)- the study of the systematic
classification of animals.

1. Protozoology - the study of one-celled animals

2. Entomology (entomo- insect) - the study of insects
3. Conchology (konche- shell) - the study of shells
4. Malacology (mala- soft) - the study of mollusks or soft-bodied animals
5. Ichthyology (ichthyo- fish) – the study of fishes
6. Herpetology ( herpeton- reptiles) - the study of reptiles
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7. Ornithology(ornis- bird) - the study of birds

8. Mammalogy (mamma - breast) - the study of mammals or animals that fed their young
by means of the mammary gland

V. Distributional Zoology- deals with distribution

1. Zoogeography (zoon- animal)- the study of the distribution of animals in space(air,
water or land)
2. Ecology (oikos- home) – the study of the relations of animals to their environment.
Convergence - a condition whereby different classes of groups of animals assume the same
shape or form due to similarities in environment .
-Ex. Pisces- fishes (fish-like), Reptilia- ichthyosaurus (fish-like) Mammalia –
whale (fish- like)
Divergence - a condition whereby the same class of animals assume different shapes or forms
due to differences in environment
-Ex. Mammalia:water- whale(fish-like); land –man (mammal-like), air – bat
(bird-like)

VI. Historical Zoology- deals with history

1. Paleontology (palaios- ancient; ont- being)- the study of fossils or remains of animals
(Paleozoology) and plants (Paleobotany) and their distribution in time.
2. Phylogeny (phylon- race; gen- become) – the study of the development of a group or
race.
3. Evolution(e-out; volvo-roll; evolvo-to unroll)- the study of the origin and differentiation of animal
life.
Organic Evolution- a theory which states that the existing forms have been derived by
gradual modification from earlier and simpler forms.

VI. Economic Zoology- the study of the economic values of animals.

VII. Medical Zoology
1. Parasitology (para-beside; sitos—food) - the study of parasites or organisms that live and subsist
on (ectoparasites) or in (endoparasites) other animals.
2. Pathology (pathos- suffering) - the study of the nature, symptoms and causes of diseases.

Questions2:
1. Compare structural zoology from developmental zoology (5 pts).
2. Compare stimuli from irritability (5 pts)

LIFE
Life – the sum total of all bodily activities of an organism. It is sometimes a force of energy from which all
the different worlds of activity could be expressed.

Theories on the origin of life

1. Divine or Special Creation Theory - Life originated from a supernatural power whom we
call God.
2. Abiogenesis or Spontaneous Generation - Life originated spontaneously from non-living
things.
3. Cosmozoic or Interplanetary Theory (panspermia) - Life originated from outer planets in
the form of a resistant spore propelled by radiation pressure, reached the earth and
started the first form of life
4. Philosophical Theory of eternity - life has no beginning and no end. It states that
whatever forms of life have now have actually been here right from the very beginning of
time.
5. Marine Theory -Life originated from the sea.
6. Naturalistic or Evolutionary or Physico-chemical Theory - This is the most scientific and
the moist accepted theory. Life came about as a result of a chain of chemical reactions
that gave rise to the present protoplasm which then gradually modified, giving rise to the
present forms of life. This chemical evolution has never been duplicated.

Characteristics of Living Things (new)

Metabolism
- refers to all the chemical and energy transformations that occur in cells as they carry out life’s
processes
- could be anabolism (building up process) or catabolism (breaking down process)
- a must in order to maintain their organization, and to grow and reproduce

Assimilation
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- Process of converting non-living inorganic and organic molecules into living cell that can be done
inside a living cell

Growth
- refers to an increase in size
- accomplished through a complex series of chemical processes (intussusceptions)
- occurs when constructive activities occur at a faster rate than destructive activities

Irritability
- refers to the ability to react to any environmental change or stimulus that often results in movement
- another form of response is when living things find energy and nutrients by interacting with their
surroundings
- the ability to respond helps ensure the survival of the organisms

Reproduction and Development

- life comes only from life
- in order for life to continue, living things must be able to produce other living things of their kind
(reproduction)

Adaptation
- refers to modifications that promote the likelihood of survival
- living things not suited to a new conditions either move to a better environment or change 9evolution)
- a change cannot occur in one generation but over many generations
- results into unity and diversity of life.

Organization
- parts of living things are arranged in a particular way
- there are levels of biological organization – biochemical, structural, physiological and ecological
organization

Levels of Organization
One of the basis characteristics of life is having a high degree of order. Life is organized in different
structural levels forming a hierarchy (Mader 2004:3)

Biosphere-region of the earth’s water, crust and atmosphere where organisms can exist
Ecosystem – a community and its environment
Community – the population of al species in a given area
Population – group of organisms of the same species in a given area and time
Organism – an individual composed of cells arranged in tissues, organs, and
Organ systems
Organ system – two or more organs functioning together
Organ – group of tissues functioning together
Tissue – group of cells functioning together
Cell – smallest living unit
Organelle – compartment that separates different activities
Inside the cell
Molecule – composed of two or more atoms bonded
Together
Atom – smallest unit of an element
Subatomic particles – electrons, protons,
neutrons
Definite form and size
- living things produce offspring similar to themselves
- all organisms belonging to the same species are alike with certain degree of variations or differences
- all organisms are basically made up of similar inorganic (water, salts, minerals, gases) and organic
molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)

Five Kingdoms of Living Things

1. Kingdom Monera – bacteria and blue green algae
2. Kingdom Protista – protozoan and algae
3. Kingdom Fungi – mushroom, mildew, ringworms, warts
4. Kingdom Plantae – all plant (Autotrophic)
5. Kingdom Animals – all animals (Heterotrophic)

Differences between plants and animals

A. As to form and structure
1. A – invariable in form
P- variable in form
2. A- organs are mostly internal
P- organs are mostly external
3. A- cell membrane is delicate or thin
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P-cell wall is thick, rigid and hard due to the presence of cellulose
4. A- growth is differential and changes to body parts are proportional to age
P- growth is terminal or is at the edge of organs and is continuous throughout life
5. A-tissues bathe in a solution of NaCl
P- NaCl is toxic to most plants
B. As to metabolism
1. A- mostly catabolic and depend upon plants and other animals for food; cannot
manufacture their own food.
P- mostly anabolic and manufacture their own food through a process called
photosynthesis.
C. As to irritability
1. A- generally with a nervous system hence they react quickly to stimuli
P- with no nervous system hence they respond slowly to stimuli
2. A- capable of adaptation, or the ability to adapt to changes in environment.
P- not capable of adaptation
3. A- with the power of locomotion
P- generally stationary

Questions3:
1. Compare metabolism from assimilation (5 pts)
2. Compare plant from animals in their growth (5 pts)

II. PROTOPLASM
Protoplasm - the living part of the cell which is composed of a complex mixture of inorganic and organic
compounds.

Elements - the 103 different basic kinds of materials that make up the universe which cannot be converted into
simpler units by ordinary physical and chemical means.

Atom - he smallest unit hat makes up an element which can enter into a chemical combination.

Molecule- the smallest particle of an element or compound, consisting of two or more atoms, that is capable of
existing separately without loss of any original chemical properties.

Properties of Protoplasm
A. Physical properties

Protoplasm is neither a true solid nor a true liquid but is composed of both solid and liquid components. It is
largely a colloidal system and consists of a liquid phase (water containing dissolves ions and small molecules)
and a dispersed phase (large molecules like proteins and aggregates of molecules).
1. It is a grayish, granular, translucent, viscous fluid that is capable of flowing.
2. it is heavier and denser than water.
3. It has the properties of a colloidal system.
Colloid - refers to finely divided matter dispersed through some continuous medium called matrix.
The size of protoplasmic colloids range from 1/ 10,000 to 1/ 1,000,000 of a millimeter
- undergo reversible sol-gel transformations or phase reversals.

Gel - a semi-solid state of protoplasm. Removing a little water from a sol will make it a gel.
Sol - a semi-liquid state of protoplasm that can flow readily. Adding water to or removing colloid from a gel
will make it a sol.

B. Chemical Properties

The basic chemical components which make up protoplasm is almost the same in almost all cells but they
vary in proportion.

6. Inorganic compounds - compounds which do not contain hydrocarbon, but include the
oxides and sulfides of carbon.
a. Water - the most abundant protoplasmic mineral ranging from 55% to 90% of protoplasm.
Characteristics of Water
ii. It is a universal solvent.
iii. It favors the dissociation of an electrolyte.
iv. It has a great fluidity thus serves as a vehicle for the transport of materials.
v. It has a high surface tension.
vi. It has the ability to absorb a large amount of heat 9with a high specific heat).
b. Minerals and mineral salts
Several minerals are essential to life. A great fraction of minerals exists in the form of hard bulk
deposits like bone, teeth or shells med up of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. Blood
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contains several minerals acting as buffers. Minerals exist in the protoplasmic material as free
ions or combined with organic molecules.
-Ex. K, Ca, Na, Mg, CO3 , bicarbonates, phosphates, chlorides, sulfates, etc.
c. Gases
i. carbon dioxide- carried through three ways:
1. 5% in solution in the plasma as carbonic acid
2. 10% in combination with amino groups of hemoglobin
3. 85% in the form of sodium and potassium bicarbonates (blood salts) both in plasma
and RBC.
Carbon dioxide is given off because it is toxic to the cells of the body.
ii. oxygen- primarily carried by RBC or erythrocytes and partly by the plasma. It is taken in
primarily for oxidation.
Oxidation- the combination of an organic compound with oxygen, producing heat and
energy necessary for chemical reaction.

8. Organic compounds - compounds which contain carbon except the oxides and sulfides of carbon .
a. Carbohydrates
Chemical composition- reserve food present only in plants
Function- provides heat and energy
Simplest form- glucose
Excess glucose can be stored in the body in the form of glycogen either in the liver or in muscles.
Sugars and their derivatives are the principal carbohydrates. If the H’s and O’s are arranged,
different kinds of sugars will result.
Forms of sugar
1. Monosaccharides - simple sugars made up of one 6-carbon sugars.
Examples:
b) glucose- dextrose or grape sugar
c) galactose- sugar in milk
d) fructose- fruit sugar or levulose
e) pentoses- form constituent groups of nucleic acids and
nucleotides.
2. Oligosaccharides (mostly disaccharides)- double sugars made up of two 6- carbon sugars(12-
carbon sugars).
Examples:
a) lactose(milk sugar) = glucose + galactose
b) sucrose (cane or beet sugar) = glucose+ fructose
c) maltose (malt sugar0 – linkage of 2 glucose molecules
3. polysaccharides - multiple sugars or a combination of more than two monosaccharides made up
of polymers( multiple number of molecules) of the same substance, usually glucose
a) cellulose – present in plants and consists of 2,000 united glucose units.
b) starch – reserve food present only in plants and is made up of a chain of 24 to 26
glucose units.
c) Glycogen (“animal starch” or emergency sugar)- reserve food present only in animals
and is made up of 12 to 18 glucose units.
Glycogenesis - the process of converting glucose to glycogen so that it can be stored
in the liver (90%) or muscles (10%).
Glycogenolysis - the process of reconverting glycogen back to glucose.

b. Fats or lipids
Chemical composition - C, H, O (with less o but more C than carbohydrates thus furnish more
heat.)
Function - provides heat and energy
Simplest form - glycerol and fatty acids

Excess glycerol can be stored in the body, either underneath the skin (ergo sterol) or in
organs(adipose). Fat is a combination of glycerin, a weak base, and fatty acids which contain carbon
chains of varying length called the carboxyl group. The carboxyl group gives fatty acids its acid
properties.

Lipids are often used to designate the whole category of fatty, fat-like related substances. The
physical properties of fat are determined largely by the component fatty acid.

Forms of fats
1) simple lipids- esters of fatty acids, glycerol and alcohols.
(1) fats- esters of fatty acids and glycerol.
- solid at 200C
- contain a large amount of saturated fatty acids.
(2) oils- esters of fatty acids and glycerol
- liquid at 200C
- ontain a large amount of unsaturated fatty acids
(3) true fats or simple lipids- sometimes called triglycerides or esters of an alcohol;
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c. can exist as a solid and liquid under ordinary room temperature.

Ex. butter
(4) waxes esters of long-chained fatty acids and alcohols with high molecular weight
-Ex. beeswax
(5) tallow (hard)- fatty acids with long carbon chains.
Ex. candle

2) compound lipids- esters of fatty acids and alcohols in combination with

other compounds
Examples:
(1) glycolipids – fatty acids in combination with a carbohydrate
(2) sulfolipids- lipids in combination with a sulfate group
3) derived lipids- the simple compounds which simple and compound lipids
give on hydrolysis
Examples:
(1) fatty acids
(2) steroids- lipids which are made up of solid alcohol with no fat-like properties
(3) ergosterol- becomes calciferol or Vitamin D when activated by ultraviolet rays
(4) cholesterol
(5) progesterone or testosterone
c. Proteins
Chemical composition- C, H, O, N( occurs in the amino group) and S. The chemical
properties of proteins are determined by the amino acids that compose them. Amino acids differ
in the nature of their -R- portion. The carboxyl group (-COOH) gives its acidic properties while the
amino group (-NH2) its basic properties. Protein molecules are large and are thus difficult to
diffuse.
Functions - build and repair the worn out tissues of the body.
- serve as reaction accelerator s (enzymes)
- form other organic constituents like nucleoproteins.

Simplest form- amino acids

Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the body. However, if at the time the excess is
present and there is a need for glycerol or glucose, then 60% of the excess can be converted
either to glucose or glycerol.

Forms of proteins
1) simple proteins- made up only of amino acids or compounds in nature which upon
hydrolysis will yield only amino acids and its derivatives.
(1) soluble- Ex. albumens, blood serum
(2) insoluble- Ex. keratin, globulins
2) conjugated proteins- made up of simple amino acids in combination with an organic
compound which is non- protein(prosthetic group) in nature
(1) nucleoproteins- combination of histone (simple protein) with nucleic acid (organic
compound)
(2) chromoproteins – hid\stone united with a color group
-Ex .hemoglobin, hemocyanin
(3) glycoproteins- protein in combination with sugar.
-Ex. mucin, mucoid from connective tissue.
(4) lecithoprotein- protein in combination with lecithin, a phosporized fat.
-Ex. egg yolk
(5) phospoproteins- protein in combination with phosphoric acid.
-Ex. casein in milk, ovovitellin in egg yolk
3) derived proteins- proteins obtained by partial hydrolysis of natural proteins. They are
denatured and coagulated proteins.
-Ex. peptones and proteoses, polypeptids and peptids
d. Nucleic Acid –
a. Ribonucleic Acid

b. Deoxyribonucleic Acid

C. Biological properties
1. reproduction
2. metabolism
3. irritability
4. adaptability

Questions 4:
1. Compare minerals from gas in their utility in the body. (5 pts)
2. Create a concept map on the different organic compound that composes the body (up to third level) (10
pts)
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III. CELL STRUCTURE

Cytology - the study of the structure, composition and functions of the cell.
Cell - the basic structural and functional unit of all living things consisting of a mass of protoplasm with a
usually centrally- located nucleus. The functional human RBC is without a nucleus. In adipose tissue, the nucleus
is eccentric in position.

Methods of study
1. microscopy - use of the compound and electron microscopes.
2. cell culture - use of culture media
3. ultra centrifugation or fractionation - use of the different components of cells having different densities.

Functions of the cell

1. mechanical function- exhibited by the contraction of muscle cells.
2. chemical function- synthesis of protein, DNA and RNA.
3. osmotic function- uptake of material y the cell from the outside
4. specialized functions
nerve cell - able to exhibit electrical phenomena in the conduction of impulses.
b. Microvili - surface of the cells facing the lumen are thrown into folds which increase the
surface for absorption.
c. cilia- long protoplasmic processes which thru their collective movement propel foreign
materials to the outside
d. flagellum- single, longer cilium which propel the sperm cell in its movement.

Size of the cell

Variable - small size provides mire surface area for transport of materials like nutrients and waste
materials; large size reduces the amount of surface area.

1. mostly microscopic like sperm cells of the body

2.some are macroscopic- Ex. chicken egg
3. lower limit for the size of an active living cell is 200- 250 mu.
Extremely large cells are called giant cells.
Smallest living cell in bacteria is 250 mu in diameter.
4. The volume of a cell with a 200 mu diameter is 4x10 6 mu3 . The bulkiest components of the cell are
macromolecules, proteins and nucleic acids.

Shape of the cell

1. Varies but is generally spheroidal.
2. Often, the shape is related to its function.
a. muscle cells- long (inches in length) which is best for contractility.
b. Neuron- with a number of processes like the axon (1.2 to 1.5 m or 4-5 ft. long) which is
responsible for conveying information to various parts of the body).
3. factors that modify cell shape:
a. surface tension
b. rigidity of the membrane
c. relationship and pressure exerted by adjoining cells
d. turgor pressure- content and viscosity of the cytoplasm
e. functional adaptation and specialization

Existence
1. solitary or in group
2. great mobility
3. fixed and immovable

History of Cell biology

1. Robert Hooke (1665)- observed thin slices of cork with a magnifying glass, saw outer boundaries or walls
and called the hollow spaces “cells”.
2. Anton von Leewenhoek (1674)- observed a variety of plants and animal structures and suggested that
organisms are composed of cells.
3. Robert Brown (1831)- observed cells with a central part, the nucleus.
9. described the streaming movement of the cytoplasm as “brownian
movement”
4. Dujardin (1835)- cells are not hollow but filled with thick jelly-like fluids
5. Mathias Schleiden, a botanist (1838) and Theodore Schwann, a zoologist (1839)- both concluded that
organisms are composed of cells.
6. Rudolf Virchow (1858)- revealed that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cell theory- states that

1. The cell is the unit of structure and function of all organisms.
2. All cells are produced from other cells. - cell division
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Two (2) general types of cells

i. Prokaryotic cells (pro- before; karyon- nucleus)- cells without true nucleus.
1. genetic material is not enclosed in membrane(naked) and is not complexed with proteins.
2. lack a well-defined nucleus and most cell organelles.
3. enzymes for cellular respiration are attached to the plasma membrane
4. ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm but some are attached to messenger RNA (mRNA).
ii. Eukaryotic cells- cells with a true nucleus
1. genetic material is enclosed in a membrane, the nuclear membrane
2. with a definite nucleus as well as cell organelles
3. mitochondria contain the respiratory enzymes
1.enzymes of tricarboxylic acid (Kreb’s cycle) reside in the intercristal spaces of mitochondria
2.enzymes for electron transport system and oxidative phosporylation are found in the crystal
membrane itself
4. ribosomes are found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) while some are soluble in the
cytoplasm

Specific functions of the cell

1. nutrition
2. bioenergetics
3. biosynthesis
4. growth
5. excitability
6. reproduction

CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE OR PLASMALEMMA

1. Characteristics of the cell membrane
a) It is a cytoplasmic boundary or limiting membrane condensed into a peripheral film.
b) It is a selectively permeable or semi-permeable membrane at may or may not allow certain
ions and molecules to enter or leave the cell. Lipid-soluble substances can easily pass
through the cell membrane.
2. Chemical composition of the cell membrane
a) two monolayers of protein ( 25- 30 A thick)
b) one bilipid layer (45 A thick) sandwiched between the two monolayers of protein
c) A small amount of carbohydrates is distributed between
lipids (glycolipids) and proteins (glyocoproteins).

CYTOSOME OR BODY
Cytoplasm- protoplasm that includes all of the protoplasm except the nucleus; it is the executive center
and has a vital reciprocal interdependence with the nucleus.
- consists of a semi-fluid ground substance, which is in a sol or gel state at different times and in
different cellular regions, in which are suspended various formed inclusions which may shaped into
granules, rodlets, filaments or droplets.
- in constant cytoplasmic movement or cyclical currents termed cyclosis due to uninterrupted
chemical and physical changes taking place on the molecular level.
1. cytoplasmic matrix- known as the ground substance.
a. hyaloplasm- homogenous amorphous region where mitochondria,
vacuoles and inclusions
are embedded
b. ergatoplasm- part of the cytoplasm that shows differential staining
capacity when stained with
basic dye.
2. cytoplasmic organelles- organized living matter regarded as small internal organs of the cell having
specific functions in the maintenance of the cell.
a. endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Characteristics
- a network of fine, tube-like, unit membrane mirotunnels that traverse the cytoplasm
between the nuclear envelope and the outer plasma membrane.
- forms a loose network of canals connecting a complex set of saccules or vesicles.
- With two types of membrane system similar to the plasma membrane except that the
lipid layer s exclusively phospolipid.
1) rough or granular ER (RER)
- with ribosomes attached to its membrane surface (with a diameter of 120A to
150 A).
-present in all cells active in the secretion of proteins like pancreatic exocrine
cells and liver cells.
Functions- protein synthesis
-translocation of solutes into and across the cytoplasm
2) smooth or agranular ER (SER)
- tubular in appearance and without ribosomes attached to its membrane surface
(like the sarcoplasmic reticulum).l
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Functions- site of steroid synthesis (hormone of the adrenal gland)

-lipids or fat synthesis
- synthesis of enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism
-concerned with he rapid transport of metabolites in muscular contraction
- intracellular transport system conveying proteins through canals either to the exterior of
the cell or to the golgi complex where they are packaged and then released from the cell.
b. ribosomes (microsomes)
(2) tiny rounded bodies or spherical granule which are either:
(a) attached to the ER and synthesize hormones; or
(b) free-floating in the cytoplasm and synthesize cytoplasmic proteins like
hemoglobin.
(3) composed of 65% RNA and 35% protein (nucleoprotein) and enzymes necessary
for protein synthesis
(4) with 2 sub-units (30-S and 50-S).
(5) form polyribosomes or polysomes when three, five or more ribosomes clump
together.
Function- site of protein synthesis (manufacturing units or principal factories)
c. golgi complex or golgi apparatus or dictyosomes
(1) consists of several flattened tubular membranes stacked upon each
other termed cisternae, and dilated terminal areas at either end of the
cisternae called vacuoles
(2) usually appear as droplet complexes or irregular filamentous networks
consisting of four or five flat hollow disks with swollen or bulbous edges
which are piled one above the other like saucers.
(3) located between the nucleus and the cell surface, and often connected to
the endoplasmic reticulum
(4) present in actively secreting gland cells like the pancreas, etc.
Functions
- “packaging” (surrounded by a membrane) of protein secretory material formed in the
ER and where carbohydrates synthesized within the golgi complex are added to the
proteins as glycoproteins( major role in the synthesis of glycoproteins).
- packaged materials bud off or are chipped off from the cisternae as pre-secretory
vacuoles (vesicles) that fuse and eventually become secretory granules which
usually fuse with the cell membrane and release their products from the cell
(manufacture of secretion products)
- transport of secretory materials( proteins, enzymes and hormones) produced in
the ER are concentrated at the ends of the flattened sacs(bulbous edges or
vesicles) of the golgi apparatus and eventually released at the cell surface
- site of formation of lysosomes, new ER and synthesis of large polysaccharides
(carbohydrates)
- In plants, the golgi complex is responsible for the:
(5) formation of the cell plate.
(6) secretion of pectins and cellulose
(7) secretion of mucilage in insectivorous plants
(8) formation of vacuoles
d. mitochondria or chondriosomes
Characteristics
(1) spherical, rod-shaped, cigar or sausage-shaped, somewhat hollow structures
Note: These are mobile structures capable of changing their shape (granular or
filamentous).
(2) double-walled (unit membrane), water-filled membrane consisting of:
(a) an outer membrane which is smooth, tightly stretched and completely surrounds
the mitochondria
(b) an inner membrane which is extensively invaginated into folds, forming shelves
called cristae which increase the surface for energy production and enzyme
activity
Note: the inner membrane is the location where enzymes for Krebs cycle and
electron transport system are, and where energy production takes place
The outer and inner membranes are separated by a narrow space.
(3) consist predominantly of protein (RNA nucleoprotein) and fat composition

Functions
(1) “powerhouse” of the cell, or responsible for the production of energy in the form of ATP
(adrenosine triphosphate) that supports mechanical and chemical work performed by
cells
Note: The amount of mitochondria varies with the cell type. Mitochondria are most
numerous in cells whose energy requirements are high such as cardiac muscle cells and
liver cells.
sperm cells- 25 mitochondria
liver cells- 1,000 mitochondria
(2) related to cellular respiration (O2)
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(3) provide energy for cytoplasmic protein synthesis, fatty acid and phospholipid synthesis

e. lysosomes (suicide bags or lyctic bodies)

(a) pre-formed, membrane –bund, dense-appearing structures or packages of
hydrolytic enzymes collectively known as acid hydrolases.
(b) Enzymes within the lysosomes can digest and therefore destroy all components
of the cell, hence are also called “suicide bags”.
Functions
i. intracellular digestion- break down intracellular molecules and digest foreign organisms
like bacteria which may enter the cell
ii. related to aging and degenerative processes.

f. peroxisomes (microbodies)
(a) similar to lysosomes in that they are membrane- bound sacs which contain
enzymes.
(b) common in liver cells and cells of the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney.
Functions
- involved either in the production of hydrogen peroxide (product of the reduction of
O2 ) or the destruction of hydrogen peroxide to water.
- concerned with active internal metabolism of the cell.
(a) purine metabolism
(b) breakdown of nucleic acids
(c) conversion of fat to glucose

g. centrosome and centriole (“cell center”)

(a) granular structure located just outside the nucleus and found in all animal cells
(neurons, etc.) and primitive plants; a self- duplicating organelle.
(b) Within the centrosome is a pair of small rod-like structures called centrioles
(c) Centrioles are minute cylinders and in cross-section, their walls are made up of
triplets of 9 evenly-spaced microtubules.
Function
- active in the process of cell division (mitosis); in the formation of cilia.

h. Plastids
- round or oval bodies containing pigments commonly found in plants.
Types of plastids
1) chloroplasts (green plastids)- green-colored
bodies containing chlorophyll, a green coloring
pigment visible in the cytoplasm of green plants.
Functions- site of photosynthesis
-“powerhouse” unit of plant cells
2) leucoplasts or leucoplastids (juvenile plastids)
-colorless plastids present in non-photosynthesizing plant tissue.
Functions- serve as storage depots for starch.
-synthesize starch from sugar
3) chromoplasts(variously-colored plastids) -
colored bodies in plant cells containing various
pigments
Functions- give brown, red, blue, orange or yellow color responsible for varied
colors of petals, fruits and vegetables.
Functions
(1) synthesize and accumulate reserve substances such as starch, fats and proteins.
(2) Storage of starch, pigments and other cellular products
(3) Chief power factory of plants in food synthesis.
i. microfilaments and microtubules
Microfilaments
- long, thin, tiny cylindrical fibrils or tubules made up predominantly of protein tubulin.
- part of the cytoplasmic matrix that has some degree of contractility which participate
in cyclosis and that are most developed in muscle cells and neurofibrils.
Functions
(1) form spindle fibers
(2) form skeletal elements of motile organelles like cilia, flagella and components of the
centriole
(3) cytoskeleton

Microtubules
- smaller than microfilaments.
- made up of protein molecules like actin
Functions
(1) maintenance of cell shape and movement of inclusions and organelles within the cell
(2) motive force for cell contraction, amoeboid movements and intracellular transport
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j. inclusion bodies - lifeless and often temporary material of the cytoplasm

- pigment granules - found in cells containing dark brown to black granules
- secretory granules - storage depots of special substances that lie inside the tubules
and vesicles of the ER and mostly in the golgi complex
- Ex. lipid droplets and glycogen granules (play an important role in energy metabolism
of the cell)
- nutrients such as lipids and glycogen
- cytoplasmic granules and vacuoles
Vacuoles - empty spaces with a single membrane and serve as repository of substances
like granules, etc.; serve as vehicles for transporting:

(a) raw materials from the cell surface to interior processing centers- Ex. food
vacuole
(b) finished products like secretion products-Ex. secretory vacuole
(c) storage materials like starch granules, fat droplets and water- Ex. storage
vacuole
(d) waste materials to points of elimination- Ex. excretory vacuole
(e) processing centers

NUCLEUS

Characteristics
- rounded, darkly-skinned structure separated from the cytoplasm by a double-walled
nuclear envelope, the nuclear membrane
- outer nuclear membrane- continuous with the membrane system of the ER.
- perforated with pores which facilitate passage of large organic molecules between
the nucleus and the rest of the cell.
- inner nuclear membrane- continuous
- Note: the spaces between the two membrane are called perinuclear cisterns
- composed of s membrane system, DNA as the principal nucleic acid, some RNA and
protein
- may be one in some cells, two in liver cells, multiple in skeletal muscle cells, and
none in some like mature red blood cells, platelets, and cells in the lens of the eye.
Functions
1. control center- directs cell division since it contains all hereditary information
in the form of genes.
2. controls protein synthesis
3. controls many metabolic activities of the cell
Note: those cells without a nucleus cannot undergo cell division, are not capable of protein
synthesis and are limited in their metabolic activities
Parts of the nucleus
1. nuclear membrane – double-walled, perforated (outer wall) membrane, the pores of which allow
materials to pass either from the cytoplasm to the nucleus or vice-versa(govern vital traffic of
materials between the cytoplasm and nucleus)
- mainly made up of protein and fatty substances
2. nucleoplasm or nuclear sap or karyolymph - gel-like nuclear sap in which are suspended the
chromosomes and one or more nucleoli
3. chromatin - clumps of a dense granular thread-like network which is transformed inot chromosomes
and one or more nucleoli
- a combination of protein, DNA, nd some RNA
- contains genes which carry the genetic information necessary for replication and synthesis of
protein
4. nucleolus - dense spherical object which is largest in the interphase (one or more may be present)
and disappear in mitosis
-consists of specialized areas of certain chromosomes called nuclear organizer, ribosomal RNA and
protein, and is the probable precursor of ribosomes .
-functions in the construction of ribosomes9control protein synthesis) which ultimately leave the
nucleus and become organized in the ER.
Question 5: (5 points each)
1. Compare endoplasmic reticulum from golgi complex in their function during transport.
2. Compare microfilament from microtubule in their function.

IV. CELL DIVISION AND OTHER ACTIVITIES

Type of Cell Division
1. amitosis – direct cell division.
2. mitosis – indirect cell division: cell pass through several stages.

Cell Cycle – the sequence of regular and repetitive physical and chemical processes taking place within the cell.
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I. Gap 1 or G1 phase
1. metabolic phase of RNA and protein synthesis
2. daughter cell increase in size and undergoes internal chemical change which prepares it for DNA replication

II. Synthetic or S phase

1. DNA synthesis and replication

III. Gap 2 or G2 phase

1. completion of DNA synthesis and beginning of active mitosis (prophase)
2. synthesis of RNA and protein.

IV. Mitosis phase or M phase

A. Prophase
- nuclear membrane starts to breakdown.
- nucleolus gradually disintegrates and disappears.
- centrosome (centriole) splits and each centriole repels each other, thus migrate towards the opposite poles, at the
same time forming a “centrodesmus”.
- chromosomes starts to condense, shorten and thicken due to the coiling.
- chromosomes go near the surface of the nuclear membrane (final disintegration)
- centrioles reach to the opposite poles and spindle fiber are completely formed.
B. Metaphase
- chromosomes are aligned at the center or equator of the cell.
C. Anaphase
- centromere or kinetochore splits and active repulsion between sister centromere thus chromosomes are dragged
and migrate towards the opposite poles.
- microtubules start to form and elongate between the migrating chromosomes.
D. Telophase
- chromosomes reach the opposite poles.
- nuclear membrane is reoriented and reformed.
- nucleolus and centrosomes are reformed.
- chromosomes starts to elongate, extend and lengthen until the thread-like or filamentous appearance is assumed.
Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm (telophase).
Karyokinesis – division of the nucleus (prophase, metaphase & anaphase)

GENE STRUCTURE

Gene – the unit of heredity carried by the chromosomes.

Composition:
1. nucleoproteins – made up of nucleic acids and proteins.
2. nucleic acid – made up of many nucleotides.
3. nucleotides – basic component or unit of a DNA molecule

Question6:
1. Draw a diagram of concept map showing the process of cell division. (10 pts)
2. Illustrate the four stages of mitosis in a short bond paper (5 pts)

TRANSPORT IN CELL
The exchange of materials between the cells or within the cell is usually through two main processes:
1. active transport - needs energy from within the cell
2. passive transport - with no need for energy from within the cell, but is mainly achieved through
diffusion
Concentration gradient - the flow of materials, whether solvent or solute from greater to lesser
concentration. The flow of materials is usually in this manner, but there are cases wherein the flow is
against the concentration gradient, and this is usually attributed to what we call as active transport as
differentiated from passive transport. A living cell is continuously undergoing metabolic activity or
chemical reaction which in turn produced energy that counteracts the normal flow of materials from
greater to lesser concentration.

Differences between Active and Passive Transport

Active Transport Passive Transport

1. needs energy 1. no need for energy
2. needs oxygen 2. no need for oxygen
3.flow is from lesser to greater 3. flow is from greater to lesser concentration
concentration (does not follow the (follows the concentration gradient)
concentration gradient)
4. flow is faster 4. flow is slower
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Diffusion - the dispersion of the molecules of one substance over those of another. Special types of diffusion are:
1. osmosis- the diffusion of a solvent or gas through a selective or semi-permeable membrane from
greater to lesser solvent or gaseous concentration.
2. dialysis- the diffusion of dissolved substances (solutes) from greater to lesser solute concentration
Osmotic pressure - the pressure exerted by the molecules of the solute, and which is directly proportional to the
number of particles or molecules.

Type of Solution
Isotonic solution - a solution, the concentration of which is equal to that within the cell.
-Ex.0.9 % salt solution (physiological salt solution)
Isosmotic solution - a solution, the osmotic pressure of which is equal to that within the cell
Hypertonic solution - a solution with a higher osmotic pressure than that of the cell, thus causing the cell
to shrink (crenation)
Hypotonic solution - a solution with a lesser osmotic pressure than that of the cell, thus causing the cell to swell
and even burst (hemolysis in blood cells)

Factors that affect the degree of membrane permeability

1. size of the molecules - The biological membrane is always provided with pores. The bigger the
molecule ,the slower will it be able to permeate through a pore; the smaller he molecule, the faster the
permeation
2. size of the pores - The smaller the pore, the less permeable the membrane; the bigger the pore, the more
permeable it is.

3. solubility - Lipid or fat solvent substances are capable of dissolving fat molecules, thus these could pass
through the membrane freely

4. electrical charges - a membrane that is positively charged would repel positively charged molecules but
would attract negatively charged molecules.

Questions 7: (5 points each)

1. Compare osmosis from dialysis
2. Compare hypertonic solution from hypotonic solution in their environment

Cellular respiration - process that produces the energy from the food eaten

Function of Metabolism
1. Nutrition - provide the raw materials for maintenance of life
2. Respiration - obtaining energy through decomposition of food
3. Synthesis - change of food substance to compound that can be stored

2 Kinds of Metabolism
1. Anabolism - build up new protoplasm to nuclear material
Ex. assimilation
2. Catabolism - breakdown of protoplasm so that energy will be released

STAGES OF RESPIRATION

1. Glycolysis
2. Fermentation occur in cytoplasm
3. Kreb Cycle pyruvic acid is oxidized to CO2 and H2O to yield energy.
4. Electron transport system
Question 8:
1. Compare Fermentation from Krebs cycle in their product and gas requirements (5 pts)
2. Illustrate a diagram on Krebs cycle (5 pts)

V. TISSUES
Histology – is the study of tissues or a group of similar cells which perform a definite function.

Classification of Animal Tissues:

1. Reproductive tissues – germ cells
2. Embryonic tissues – temporary or immature tissue
3. Mature or Somatic tissue – constitute of the body of animals.

I. EPITHELIAL TISSUE - covering

- cells are completely placed with one another and with very little intercellular or cementing
substance between cells.
- cover the external surface of the body and internal surface of the cavities of the body.
 15

- composed of one layer of cells (simple) or several layers of cells (stratified).

- give rise to most glandular structures.
- form parts of all the sense organs.
Functions:
1. covering and protection
2. secretion
3. excretion
4. absorption
5. sensation
Type of epithelial tissues
1. squamous epithelium – made up of thin, flat cells that resemble blocks. E.g., lining of
coelom or body cavity, lining of nose and mouth cavity, outer portion of the cornea of
the eye etc.
2. columnar epithelium – cell are much taller that their width. E.g. lining of alimentary canal,
innermost layer of epiglottis, parts of urethra etc.
3. cuboidal epithelium – height of the cells is about as tall as their width; cells are like ice
cubes. E.g. lining of ducts, kidney tubules, epidermis of the tail of amphibians.
4. ciliated or flagellated epithelium – maybe columnar or cuboidal cells which are provided
with cilia or flagellum. E.g. innermost lining of trachea, intestine of earthworm.
5. glandular epithelium – specialized for secretion. E.g. sweat glands in the skin of
mammals.

II. SUSTENTATIVE OR CONNECTIVE TISSUE – supportive

- cells are far apart.
- Contains a large amount of intercellular substance or cementing substance between cells.
- Cells are usually enclosed within an empty space called lacuna.
Functions:
1. to support
2. to connect.
Type of connective tissues
1. vesicular connective tissue (cellular connective tissue) – made up of polygonal cells which
are fluid but with very little intercellular substance.
2. mucus or gelatinous connective tissue – cementing substance is a homogenous, jelly-
like or gelatinous matrix. E.g. umbilical cord of babies.
3. reticular tissue – a meshwork of connective tissue cells filled up with other tissue cells. E.g.
spleen, bone marrow, lymph glands and liver.
4. fibrous connective tissue – intercellular materials are composed of fibers distributed as
binding tissue that cover muscles and nerves. E.g. tissues between the skin and the
body walls
5. adipose tissue – used as stored fats; cells are rounded. E.g. fat bodies.
6. pigment tissue – cells contain granular pigment which give color to organs. E.g. iris of the
eye.
7. cartilage – the intercellular substance, called the matrix is impregnated with inorganic
substance like calcium.
8. bone or osseous tissue – intercellular substance is calcified.

III. MUSCULAR TISSUE – contractile

- Muscle cells are long, elongated, slender cells thus are more appropriately called muscle fibers.
The delicate membrane covering of a muscle fiber or cell is called sarcolemma.
- A muscle fiber contains minute, highly contractile fibrils called myofibril.
- A muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fiber enveloped by a connective tissue, the epimysium.
- Each muscle bundle is further enclosed by connective tissue, the epimysium.
- Four or more muscle fiber are in turn enclosed by endomysium.

Functions:
1. for movement and locomotion
2. gives shape to the body.

Type of muscle tissue

1. striated voluntary muscle or skeletal muscle tissue E.g. all muscles attached to the skeleton.
2. unstriated (smooth) involuntary muscle tissue. E.g. muscles of the digestive tract.
3. cardiac or striated involuntary muscle tissue. E.g. muscles of the heart.

IV. VASCULAR TISSUE – circulatory

- a fluid or liquid tissue
- consist of a liquid part called as plasma and formed elements called cells.
 16

Functions
1. transport and distribute food materials, gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones and other
waste products.
Formed Elements or cells:
1. erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC).
a. caries oxygen
b. human – male = 5,500,000 RBC per cubic mm of blood.
- female = 5,000,000 RBC per cubic mm of blood.
2. thrombocytes or blood platelets
a. related for blood clotting
b. tiny bodies about ¼ the diameter of the RBC. colorless and non-nucleated.
c. 250,000 to 300,000 per cubic mm of blood.
3. leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC).
a. soldier of the body – fight infection.
b. origin – from lymph glands and some from the bone marrow.
Type of Leucocytes
A. Granulocytes – with granules in the cytoplasm; nucleus varies in shape.
1) neutrophil – nucleus consist of three or more lobes; not stained by basic or acidic
dye: 60 – 70%.
2) eosinophil – nucleus consist of two lobes; stained by acidic dye; 3 – 4%.
3) basophil – one-lobed nucleus that is usually twisted like “S”; stained by basic dye;
0.5%.
B. Agranulocytes – with no granules in the cytoplasm.
1) lymphocytes – smallest spherical cell with nucleus almost occupying the entire cell; 20 –
25%.
2) monocytes – bigger spherical cell; nucleus is bean-shaped; 2 – 6%.

V. NERVOUS TISSUE
Function: to receive and transmit impulses.
Parts of neuron
Neuron or nerve cell – the structural and functional unit of nervous tissue.
1. cell body or cytosomal body – large, with conspicuous nucleus and two or more thin
protoplasmic or cytoplasmic extension that grow out the cell body to form fibers (dendrite
and axon).
2. dendrite – the shorter, much branched (tree-like); transmit impulses towards the cell body.
3. axon – the short or long unbranched; transmits impulses away from the cell body

Type of neuron according to function

1. sensory neurons – transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the nerve center (brain &
spinal cord.
2. motor neurons – carry impulses from the nerve center to effectors (muscles or glands)
3. association neurons – form various connections between other neurons (between sensory and
motor neurons).

Synapse – the point of contact between neurons.

Ganglion – a group of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS.
Nerve fiber – elongated outgrowths or extensions of nerve cells which may be an axon or a
dendrite.

Questions 9: 5 points each

1. Compare epithelial tissue from connective tissue in their functions
2. Compare skeletal muscle tissue from cardiac muscle tissue in their functions
3. Compare dendrite from axon in their function

References:

1. Hickman, C.P. , L.S. Roberts and F.M. Hickman. 1990. Biology of Animals. Mosby College Publishing, USA.
2. Hickman, C.P., L.S. Roberts and A. Larson. 1993. Integrated Zoology. 9th ed. Mosby College Publishing, U.S.A.
3. Hickman, C.P. , L.S. Roberts, S.L. Keen, A. Larson , H I’Anson and D.J Einsenhour. 2014. Integrated Principles of
Zoology 14th ed. McGraw-Hill Publishing, USA. 931pp. (pdf)
4. Larsen and Keller. 2017. Integrated Principles of Zoology
 17

NAME: _____________________________________ RATING: _________________

COURSE & YEAR: ___________________ GROUP: _________ DATE: _____________

Activity 1
THE MICROSCOPE

Objective: To identify and classify the parts of the microscope .

Materials:
Procedure:
1. Borrow a compound microscope at the stock room.
2. Carry it carefully from the stockroom to the classroom.
3. Before manipulating the apparatus, listen to the instructions as per demo by the
instructor.
4. Be familiar with the different part and functions.
5. Classify the different part base on the following:
a. Mechanical Parts (13)

b. Magnifying (5)

c. Illuminating (3)

6. What is the use of the microscope?

7. Label the parts of the compound microscope on the given illustration:

18
 19

An Animal Cell

The Plant Cell