Branches of Science

Science is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world
through observation, experimentation, and the testing of theories against the evidence obtained. In simple
word, Science is observing, studying, experimenting to find nature of things.

MAJOR BRANCHES MAJOR BRANCHES

1. Natural Science - a branch of science that 2. Social Science - branch of science that deals
seeks to understand natural phenomena or how with human behavior in its social and whole
universe behaves. cultural aspects.

3 MAIN BRANCHES OF NATURAL SCIENCE

MAIN BRANCHES
1. Life Science - study of
living organisms and life
processes, from cells and
molecules to plants and
animals and their
interrelation.
 Biology – study of
living organism or
matter and their vital
processes
 Zoology – study of
animal life
 Anatomy – study of
structure of humans,
animals, plants and
other living organism
 Ecology – deals with
the relations of
organism and
interaction
 Botany – study of
plants
Careers: Biomedical
scientist,
Biotechnologist,Microbiologi
st, Veterinarians
MAIN BRANCHES
2. Physical Science – study of
inanimate matter or natural
object.
 Chemistry - deals
with the
identification of the
substances of which
matter is composed
 Physics – deals with
matter and energy
and their interactions
Career: Engineers,
Chemist
MAIN BRANCHES
3. Earth Science – study of
Earth’s structure
 Geology - deals with
Earth's physical
structure, its physical
history, processes
 Astronomy - study of
everything in the
universe beyond
earth's atmosphere L
 Meteorology-
concerned with the
processes of the
atmosphere or
weather.
 Paleontology -
concerned with fossil
evidence that existed
in pre-historic
Careers: Paleontologist,
Geologist, Meteorologist,
Astronaut

Scientific Method
 Scientific Method is a scientific approach to research
 to explain what is already there  to check other theories
 to test prediction of current  to seek information
theories  to perform experiments

7 STEPS

NO. 1 NO. 2 NO. 5

Ask Questions Perform research / observation Collect and

Analyze the
results –
NO. 3 NO. 4 modified the
Establish your hypothesis Experiment - test your prediction / procedure needed
(scientific guess) scientific approach to research

 Independent Variable – Control group / standard NO. 6

can manipulate / measurable (the one who is Conclusion -
change being compared) perform study
 Dependent variable - Trial and Error whether your
measurable/constant correct or not

Person Behind NO. 7

1. Galilie Galile – Italian Physicist Communicate the

2. Francis Bacon – English Philosopher result - present
 Theory – ideas intended to explain something /
unifying principle
 Hypothesis - proposed explanation made on the
basis of limited evidence as a starting point for
further investigation
o Quantitative – numbers
o Qualitative – describe events in words

Example
One aquarium of iguana is fed w/ an amount of food once a day. A 2nd aquarium is fed 4x a day during 6 week
slowly. He Iguana’s size is recorded daily.

Independent Variable: no. of times Iguana’s are fed Dependent Variable: Iguana’s size (response to IV)

Origin Of The Universe

 Non Scientific Theory
 Ancient (Egyptians) Cosmology – study
 Big Bumba Theory (Africa) of Universe
 Religion

Scientific Theory
 Big Bang Theory
 Steady State Theory

Classification of Theories

Big Bang Theory Steady State Theory

 Proposed by George Lemaitre
 Expanding / moving apart / galaxy
 A tremendous expansion
 Contains protons, electrons,
neutrons
 The universe is always expanding
 Pr. Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold,
Hermann Bondi

Expanding Universe
Hubble’s Law – the farther away a galaxy, the faster it moves away from the Earth
Edwin Hubble discovers the galaxy is moving around
Universe (13.8 billion yrs.) ----- Galaxies ----- Milky Way ---- Stars
---- Solar System ---- Asteroids
Theories on the Ultimate Tale of the Universe
---- Sun
 Big Crunch
 Big Chill ---- Planets --- Terrestrial
(Inner)
Natural Laws
--- Jovian (Outer)
 Strong nuclear force
 Electromagnetic force
Terrestrial: Mercury, Venus, Earth
 Weak Nuclear Force
 Gravity Terrestrial -made of rocky malterial,
surfaces are solid, don’t have ring
system, few moons, relatively small
Eras
Solar Sytem Jovian: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
 Hadron and Lepton era Neptune
 Nucleosynthesis era
Jovian have multiple moons, support
 Opaque era ring system, no solid surface, Immense
 500 known  Circumstellar disc in the outer Solar
 located in Milky way's orion star System, extending from the orbit of
cluster Neptune & Sun, it is a home of pluto
 part of so called local group of and birthplace of comets
galaxies, which in turn is part of  Solar system came into being when a
Virgo Supercluster of Galaxies cloud of interstellar gas and dust
 collapsed, resulting in a solar nebula,
a swirling disc of material that
collided to form Solar system
 It’s spiral arms rotate around a
globular cluster or bulge of many,
many stars, at the center of which
lies a supermassive blackhole
 This galaxy is about 100 milljon
light years across (1 lightyear 9.4607
x 10 km)
 revolves around the galactic center
once about 240 myrs.
 Radioactive dating of meteorites,
suggest that the Earth and Solar
system are 4.5 - 4.6 billion yrs old
 It compromises the sun, eight
planets, dwarf planets such as pluto,
Satellites, Asteroids, Comets, other
minor bodies such as those in the
Kuiper Belt and interplanetary dust

Asteroid Belt Kuiper Belt  marks the outer

 lies between Mars and
Jupiter
 composed of Silicates
(rocks) and metals
(minerals)
 divides the inner planet
and the outer planet flat
disc
boundary of the solar
 lies beyond Neptune
system and is
 much larger in size and composed mostly of
more massive objects icy objects
 composed of various
ice
Oort Cloud

Angular momentum Elliptical

 measure of tendency of a rotating body  rotates around another object in oval
to remain rotating form

Prograde
 the direction an object spins in relation
to its orbit around the sun. Prograde
refers to an object that spins in the same
direction as its orbit. Earth has a
prograde rotation
Retrograde
 refers to an object that spins in the
opposite direction of its orbit. Asteroid
Bennu has a retrograde rotation, which
means the two bodies rotate in opposing
directions

Large Scale Properties of Solar System

Much of the mass of the All planets revolved

solar system is
concentrated at the center
(sun) while angular
momentum is held by the
outer planets."
around the sun in an
elliptical orbit
All planets are located at
regular intervals from the
sun
The periods of revolution
of the planets increase with
Increasing distance from
the sun. The innermost
Planet moves fastest, the
outermost the slowest
Small Scale Properties of Solar System
Most planets rotate prograde (counterclockwise/ eastward direction) except Venus and Uranus
that rotate Retrograde (clockwise / westward direction)
Terrestrial Planets
 high melting points, such as silicates,
iron, nickel
 rotate slower
 have thin / no atmosphere
 higher densities
 lower volatiles of volatiles (hydrogen,
helium, noble gases)
Jovian Planets
 called gas giants because of the
dominance of gases and thru larger size
 rotate faster
 have thick atmosphere
 fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium,
ices (water, ammonia, methane)
Theories on Origin of the Solar System
Nebular Hypothesis
 Nebula is originated by the cloud and
disrupted by supernova; diffuses gases;
same cloud; cloud as star; come from big
bang theory; dust disk; has rotational
activity; form a thin disc forming
sun/star; came together to form a cloud.
Asteroid / planets form in gas, dust in the
disc. form in gravitational collapse of the
giant molecule
 Mercury – smallest, shortest orbit, in
front of the sun •
 Venus – hottest
 Earth - sustain life
 Mars - supported life, 3.7 byr. ;
watery/icy/moist
 Jupiter & Saturn - Gas giants
(predominantly helium & hydrogen)
 Uranus & Neptune - Ice giants
(contain rock, ice, mixture of water,
methane and ammonia
 widely accepted theory
 In the 1700's, Emanuel Swedenborg,
Immanuel Kant, Pierre-Simon Laplace
independently thought of a rotating
gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in
the middle to form the sun and rest into a
disc that become the planets
 The nebular theory failed to account for
the distribution of angular momentum in
the solar system
Encounter Hypothesis
 Buffon's (17494) Sun-Comet encounter
that sent matter to form planet
 Jannes Jean's (1917) Sun-Star
encounter that would have drawn from
the sun matter that would condensed to
planets
 TC. Chamberlain and F.R. Moulton's
(1904) Planetesimal Hypothesis
involving a star much bigger than the
sun passing by the sun and draws
gaseous filaments from both out which
planetesimals were formed.
 Bay Lyttleton's (1940) Sun's
Companion star colliding with another
to form a protoplanet that breaks up to
form Jupiter and Saturn.
 Otto Schmidt's Accretion theory
proposed that the sun passes through a
dense interstellar cloud and emerged
Protoplanet Hypothesis (Current Hypothesis)
 About 4.6 b.y.a in the Orion arm of the
Milky Way Galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas
and dust cloud dominated by hydrogen
& helium starts to contract the due to
gravity
 As most of the mass move to the center
to eventually become a proto-sun, the
remaining materials form a disc that will
eventually become the planets and
momentum is transferred outwards.
 Due to collisions, fragments of dust and
solid matter begin sticking to each other
to form larger & larger bodies from m-
km in size These proto planets are
accretions of frozen water, ammonia,
methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, other
Nuclear fusion gives Multimetal & dust
birth to sun. particles stick together
to form cluster/rocks
caused by neutral
gravity
with a dusty, gaseous envelope that
eventually became The planets.
However, it cannot explain how the
planets and satellites are formed. The
time requires to form the planet exceeds
the age of the solar system
 M.M. Woolfson's Capture Theory is a
variation of Jannes Jean's near collision
hypothesis, the sun drags from a near
proto-star a filament of material which
becomes the planet
 It is a revolutionary theory where rogue
star passes closes to sun, gas is tidily
removed from both rogue star & sun,
rogue star material is less dense and
becomes the outer planets inner solar
system material is more dense & become
terrestrial. It is collision between sun and
star to form planet
metals in rock & mineral grains
enveloped in hydrogen & helium.
 high-speed collisions with large objects
destroy much of the mantle of Mercury,
puts Venus in in retrograde rotation.
 Collision of the earth with larger object
produces the moon. This is supported by
I the composition of moon very similar
to the earth's mantle
 When the proto-sun is established as a
star, it's solar wind blasts hydrogen,
helium, & volatiles from the Inner
planets to beyond mars to form the gas
giants leaving behind a system we know
today
Protoplanet is a
massive object that will
eventually become a
planet (Modified
version of Nebula)
 Milky Way galaxy is filled w/ cold
clouds of molecular hydrogen gas, dust
to dust provides sides for condensation
of gas (ice covered disc). Cloud begins
to collapse under self-gravity clast begin
to secret to cloud collapse to a rotating
disc
Inner region
denser, collapses faster, Proto-sun forms
before planets
Outer region
evolves slower into thin disc of particles
and thicker outer disc of gases
Recent Advancement - 1960's, the Soviet
Union and the U.S have been sending
unnamed probes to the planet mars with
the primary purpose of testing the
planet's habitability. Involves flybys to
photographs of the Martian surface. 1st
successful landing 1975 under Viking
program of NASA. Presented evidence
of seasonal flow liquid water. [in the
form of brine -salty water) on the surface
mars.

The Solar System consist of a central star (the sun), the & planets orbiting the sun, moons,
asteroids, comets, meteors. interplanetary gas, dust, and all the space in between them
 The 8 planets of solar system are named for Greek & Roman Gods and Goddess the sun
 The sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion (where hydrogen is converted to helium)
within its core. This energy is released from the sun in the form of heat and light.
- Stars produce light. Planets reflect light.
- A star's temperature determines its color. The coldest are red, the hottest are blue

The 8 Planets
Planets are categorized according to composition and size.
Main Categories of planets Main Categories of planets
Small rocky planet (inner) Gas Giants

 Made up mostly of rock and metal  Made up mostly gases (hydrogen &
 Very heavy helium)
 Move slowly in space  Very light for their size
 No rings and few moons  Move quickly in space
 Have diameter of less than 13, 000  Have rings(methane) and many
km moons
 Have diameter of less than 48,000
km
Small rocky planet (inner)
3. Earth

1. Mercury o only planet known to support living organism

o 71% of water that is necessary for life on
o revolution period of 88 days.
Earth, oceans help maintain Earth stable
o Extreme temperature fluctuations, 800°F
temperature
(day) to 270°F (night) o 1 moon and oxygen
o there is ice that protect from the sun's heat by
o Earth’s moon: 29 days to complete its
crater shadows
rotation; covered in dust & debris from
meteor impacts
2. Venus

o brightest object in the sky after the sun d

4. Mars
moon, because it's atmosphere reflects
sunlights as well o Like Earth
o temperature of 900°F o Like planetesimal collided with Earth and
o no moons; 225 days to complete its orbit was broken down into debris but was formed
again & become moon
o Has ice caps & poles
o Has the largest volcano: Olympus Moon that
is approximately 15m high
o Appears red because of iron oxide, rust, soil
o 2 moons; 2 y to complete its orbit

Gas Giants

1. Atmosphere ( Mixture of gases: nitrogen, oxygen,

Air)
5. Jupiter

o largest & massive planet

o diameter is 11 x bigger than Earth  thin gaseous layer (protects UV )
o 12 y to orbit Sun  process is redistributed through atmospheric
o 16 moons circulation
 exchange of heat
 has heat trapping
6. Saturn

o Composed of hydrogen & helium

o many rings made of ice, very wide, extend
outward to about 260,000 m from the surface
but are less than 1 m thick
o 18 moons, some orbit inside the ring
o 30 y to orbit sun

2. Biosphere 3. Hydrosphere

 Set of all forms  Cover with water

 Cover all (hydrologic cycle)
Earth ecosystem  Heat is absorbed
 foodchain and redistributed
 sunlight is not on the surface of
 Other names: Gaia, Gaea, Terra, Tellus, the necessary for life Earth through
World, The Globe ocean circulation
 Spherical, small flattening at the poles
 Gravity 9.8 m/s² 7. Uranus
 Abundant element oxygen 46.0% Silicon 28%
o blue color due to high methane
o 11 dark rings surround it
o 21 moons, 84 y to complete orbit
Earth System Interconnected cycle

8. Neptune
 o fastest wind 2,000km/h
o blue due to methane gas Characteristics
o 8 moon, 165 y to orbit sun
 Water
 Atmosphere – greenhouse gases (traps
temperature) (carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, water vapor)
 Distance of the sun – Goldilocks Zone /
Habitable Zone
 Moon – natural satellite
 Stable rotation

 365 & ¼ day in a year or 365. 256; 23 h, 56 min,

4 sec
 Water: 70% (3% freshwater & 97% saltwater)

 Troposphere - includes living things;

determined by pressure and temp.
 Stratosphere – after ozone layer, temperature
is increased
 Mesosphere – has ice; 30-50 m above solar
 Thermosphere – after Karman line (from
Earth & outer space define boundary);
largest layer; protect from radiation
 Exosphere – after exobase boundary

4. Lithosphere

 Includes rocks/
geosphere/ Earth
 Oceanic;
continental
 Process of shaping
surface (plate
tectonics)
Layers of Earth
 Rigid outer layer

1.Crust – outer and thin layer Moho – boundary separating crust Asthenosphere – ductile rock in
(oceanic crust; continental) & mantle mantle

3. Core – has inner (solid state) &  has 2

2. Mantle – middle; 83% Earth’s orbital
interior outer (liquid state) core
asteroids
/
satellite: 5753-cruithne (orbit outside the earth) ;
Water Cycle 2002 AA29 (go with the earth’s orbit)

Condensation – gas to liquid Transpiration – process of water vapor Evaporation –

being released from plants liquid to gas
Precipitation – liquid water to
water vapor (clouds) Infiltration - absorption of water in Surface run off
the ground
 Magnetic Field - protect us from solar radiation
and wind

Minerals

A Mineral is homogeneous, naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a
characteristic, chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure and specific physical properties.

A Mineral was formed when atoms molecule bound together, they formed a crystalline arrangement (structure of
the molecules and the atoms held together 3 dimensional arrangements)

Ways how mineral formed naturally

1. Precipitation directly from the water solution w/ a 2. Crystallization from a magma with a temperature
temperature change change

3. Biological Precipitation by the action of any organism within our geological environment. It is formed in
geological environment (wide range of chemical, physical conditions which verify temperature and pressure)

 Interaction of humans with our fundamentally geological environment

 Oldest mineral, Zircons
 father of mineralogy- Georgius Agricola
 Discovered by finding its location, deposits ways: removing sensors, using satellite images, geochemical
surveys
 About 20 minerals make up more than 95% of all the rocks in the Earth's crust
 They are formed in the earth's mantle (from heat & pressure) near the surface when oxygen, calcium and
Carbon combine in the ocean and when hot mineral- rich water moves slowly through the cracks in the
Earth's surface

Criteria to identify a material is mineral

1. Naturally occurring - it should be made by 2. Inorganic - process to produce a mineral by
natural processes without the aid of any organism. natural means is extended further by making sure that
Any materials that are formed in laboratories or no organic material be considered a mineral.
artificial conditions is not considered a mineral
3. Homogenous solid - we should be able to see  has definite chemical constituency
something that is uniform in appearance and is the  Polymorphs -mineral share common
solid state of matter chemical composition (same chemical but
different Structure).

4. Definite chemical composition - mineral must

also possess uniformity in its chemical composition

5. Ordered internal / crystalline structure – a crystalline material is something that has its elemental components
arranges in an ordered fashion

 the material repeats this order in a 3-dimensional framework that can extend virtually into infinity
 Mineraloid - does not contain ordered internal structure required in a mineral (has all the criteria but does
not exhibit crystallinity & does not have the ordered atomic structure required to meet the definition of
mineral

Physical Properties

Color  the presence of impurities may alter its color

 property used to identify minerals easily Streak

 results of the way minerals absorb light
 the color of mineral in powdered form

Hardness

 refers to the measure of the mineral's resistance from scratching / to test mineral's hardness
 uses the standard scale (Mons scale of Hardness) 1 easily scratch

Cleavage and Fracture Transparency/ Diaphaneity

 used to describe how minerals break into
pieces
 Cleavage is a breakage along the crystalline
structure where mineral is likely to break
smoothly
 Fracture is a chipping shape of a mineral
Crystalline structure
 Indicates the extent of light that can pass
through the mineral
 Transparent: when you can see clearly
through it.
 Translucent: light comes through it but you
cannot see clearly through it (only light you
can see not the object who brings light.)
 Opaque no light comes through

 aka crystal lattice

 tells how a minerals crystals are arranged Magnetism
 Crystal solid- form a regular repeating 3-
 ability of minerals to attract or repel other
dimensional crystal lattice
minerals
 Amorphous solid -forms aggregate that
have no particular order or arrangement

Tenacity

 level of resistance of reaction of minerals to stress such as crushing, bending, breaking or tearing
 It can tell if a mineral is brittle malleable, elastic etc.

Note:

 Brittleness is the
mineral that turns
into powder
 Flexibility is bent
Luster
 reaction of a mineral to
light
 determines how
brilliant or dull mineral
is through metallic /
non-metallic physically
Silicates
 largest a most abundant
group containing silicon &
oxygen w/ some
aluminum, magnesium,
Iron, calcium
Sulphate
 forms in areas w/ high
evaporation rates and
where salty waters slowly
evaporated
Odor
 distinct smell of a mineral
that is usually released
Specific Gravity
from a chemical reaction
when subjected to water,  measure of density of
heat, air, or friction mineral
 determines how heavy the
mineral is by comparing its
weight to that water
Chemical Properties
Carbonate
 found deposited in marine
environment
 formed from shells of dead
Sulfide
plankton & other marine
organisms  has important metals like
copper, lead, silver which
are economically
significant and we can use
Halide
in our daily lives.
 contains natural salts
 usually form in lake,
ponds, & other landlocked
seas such as dead seas
Phosphate
 contains minerals with
phosphorous
Native elements
 contains metal and
intermetallic elements,
semimetals, nonmetals/
natural alloy, constituents
of a few rare meteorites
 Rock

 A ROCK is a naturally
destruction, reformation gathered and settled
occurring aggregate
as a result of natural together, the bottom
(material formed from a
processes layers of these rocks are
loosely compacted mass
of fragments or particles)  solid collection of mineral compressed by gravity
grains & chemicals and are cemented
of minerals or other rock
 Rocks are not together and converted
fragments
created/destroyed, but into sedimentary rocks
 Rocks change formation
redistributed &  Heat & pressure inside
& transport through
transformed from one the Earth cause rocks to
sequence of events
rock type to another change
formation, alteration,
 Extrusive (once these  Billion years to form rock
small rocks are / 100 million years

Note:

 Sedimentation occurs when cold material is

being transported by this water, it settles out of
the water, to the surface as the water flow.
 Deposition as sediments. It takes place when
particles in suspension settle out of the fluid in
which they are entrained and come to rest
against a barrier
 Compaction - the layers are squeezed together
and any water mixed with the sediments is
forced out
 Cementation - push together by the weight of
water and other sediments shaped down cement

Rock Classification

Igneous

1. Igneous is formed when molten surface / cools below the

rock (magma) cools and solidifies,
with or w/out crystallization, either
below the surface as intrusive
2 Classifications
(plutonic) rocks or on the surface as
extrusive (volcanic rocks) Hare
visible individual materials
 Extrusive/Volcanic rocks -
cools above the surface or
near the surface / cools when
it reaches the surface / magma
pushed from the volcano
 Basalts, andesites
(small crystals)
 tend to cool much
more rapidly; grow
quicker not large; have
sugary fine- grained
texture
 Intrusive/Plutonic rock -
cools before reaching the
surface
 large crystal
Classified based on
 Texture – refers to physical
appearance/character of a
rock, such as grain size,
shape, and arrangements.
 Mineralogic Contents
 felsic rock-light colored
and have low density
rock contains silica
 Mafic rock - rock
contains less silica,
 dark colored, high in  Ultramafic rock - w/ silica, Earth's mantle
density rich in more than 90% of contains this rock
magnesium and iron mafic minerals, less
(Basalt, granite)

Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary Rocks - classified by the source of their
sediments, and produced by one or more processes
that follows
Types
 Clastic Sedimentary rocks-composed of
fragments of older rocks that have been
deposited and consolidated
 small grained or broken little prices
(sand)
 through weathering
 Chemical sedimentary rocks - formed when
minerals precipitate from a solution, usually sea
water. Halite and gypsum example of minerals
that Precipitate from aqueous solutions to form
Chemical sedimentary rocks (most chemical
rock starts out with a solution of water by
evaporation)
 Begins as a sediment which are
cemented together through a natural
process
 Biochemical sedimentary rocks - composed of
accumulations of organic debris. Coal & some
limestones are example of biological
sedimentary rocks
 there are the formations of the shells &
bodies of underwater & organisms,
these living organisms extracts
chemical components from water and
used them to build other shells & body
parts

Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic Rocks - results of transformation of a pre-existing rock type, the protolith, in a process called
Metamorphism (change in form) subjected to heat 150°C causing physical/chemical change. It is found beneath
Earth surface

 Foliation refers to flat or wavy planar features (looking like layers) caused by the alignment of platy minerals
such as mica. Foliation may also look like alternating bands of light and dark minerals
 alignments / classified based on texture –
 ex. Low (slate) 50-300°C, Intermediate (Schist) 300-450°C, High (Gneiss) above 450°C
 Non-foliated have interlocking grains with no specific pattern. They classified based on Composition, and this
usually depends on the type of rock it originally formed from polished to be belter

Energy Resources

 The Energy of the Big Bang formed Sun and Planets. Planets such as Earth, which contain Resources,
classified as Renewable and Non-Renewable.
 Anything that can be used to generate power for human use

Categories Categories
Renewable Resources - energy
Non-Renewable Resources - energy
resources that can be replaced or
resources that will eventually run-out,
regenerated and will never run out
once used they cannot be used again.

Solar Energy

Conversion to Solar Energy

 sun rays (solar
radiation) that  Photovoltaic (PV devices) or  Solar Dish
reach the Earth Solar cells - change sunlight  Solar Power Tower
 can be used to heat directly into electricity
water & heat  Solar Power Plants - indirectly
spaces generates electricity when the
heat from solar thermal
collectors is used. to heat a fluid
which produces steam that is
used to power generator
Advantages

 An immaculate energy sources Disadvantages

 one solar panel is installed, solar energy can
 The sun does not shine at night and during
be produced free of charge
the day. there may be clouds and rain
 Solar energy causes no pollution
 Solar panels require additional equipment:
Inverters, to convert direct power (DE), to
alternating (AC) for use on the power
network
 Solar Panel efficiently is generally low
(between 14% to 25%) in contrast to the
higher effectiveness of other energy systems
 In spite of the fact that PV panels require no
excessive maintenance or operating costs,
they are fragile & can be damaged easily;
extra insurance cost are therefore essential to
protect PV investment

Wind Energy divin motion caused by uneven heating 115 is the Garth's surface by the sun. Lorge atmosphine winds
that are the a Garth are created because the land mar the earth's equator is wat id more by the sun than the lond near
the North & South Pole. Wind Machines Types turbined used toy baild on the direction of thu wtating shaft:
Horizontal-axis (most common) Vertical Ayis Clusters of wind machines are called Wind Forms Turbines have large
blades that capture the knilic energy direttly of the wind. this kinetic mugy directly turns turbine a geocrates
clearicity

Wind Turbines are source of 'clean chargy as they do not piboluer polluting waste Avantages Diralvantages
•Govironmental frundly. The wind thicamates • Wind anergy is free • Installation is arρέπεισε Small footprint
Threat to Willfire Industrial & Domestic Noise Polution Installations Increase anirgy flaunty Hydroelectro anergy -
water a granity gururates cringy (Dam) Advantages Green -Disadvantages Reliable Environmental Consequences.
・Flexible Carpensive Inigias Safe Gyothermal anergy - heat from the Garth. Vses the stram d hot water produced
inside the earth to heat buildings I generate ellatmaty. The mat is continourly produced Inside the Garth. → Garth's
Interior found in Pautic Ring of fire. Direct Use 4 District Heating Systems Electricity Generation. Eleothermal Heat
Jumps Grothermal Nante grothermal eat pumps are the mat energy-efficient, Environmentally cli'an, & cost-
effective systems for temp control 4 You sent -Advantages Govironmental Friendly Small land footprint A stable
source conomic factors Great for Heating/cooling Accessibility • No fuel required Abundant supply Disadvantage
Location Specstic Hous ・Surfou Instability obiemass antray-organic matenal made from plants & animals. Can be
converted to other usable forms of nirgy like methane gas transportation fuls like ethanol & hathesd forms Wood &
wood waste are the most common dorms. Nunicipal solid waste, land full gas a biogas & other firms from hiomass
material. don't burn as muchas fossil futs cleaner burning & produce furer air pollutants than focal ve Types: Ethanol
& ochsl Green Moutain unugy Advantag Biomass wed as a full reduces need for forel file for the production of Mat,
Steam, & electricity for residential, imuthal & agricultural use momers is always available. The use of waste
materials reduce landfull disposal 4 makes more space for everything care •less money spent on foreign all
Disadvantages Agncultural weites will not be available if the basic crop Is'ne longer given. You sent Additional work
umeaded in areas such as horvesting. methods Research is needed to reduce the costs of production. of Biomass
bases tusla Is in some cases is a major cause of poaution. Some Biomass conversion projects and from animal
wastes & are relatively small the redore ure limited. presently the world's primary source of curgy energy derived
from the remales of prehistoric plants & ammals that died million of years ago 4 were bured Types Coal, Petroleum,
Nahirat Gau Coal, black combustible rock made up mostly of clinental carbon. Contains the energy stored by plants.
that lined hundreds of million of ya in swampy tirati. -Solid fossil fuel formed insereral stages. land plants that lived
300-400 m ya. Subjected to intense. heat & pressure over million of yo -forral: Swamp (dimoucon/giunts died on
swamps), dirt (deadplant), Rocks & Dirt (heat & pressure. turmed the trad plants into coal) Advantages Ample
supplies high nit eiigy lich • Low cost mining & combustion technology. Will developed Jir pollution can be
reduced, -Disadvantages Very higlu environmental impact Severe land disturbance, air pollution & water polle. High
land use/ mining) severe threat to human health High Co. commissions when burned /improved technology (1)
Releases ratiorative particles AAYIG merung into our Pickume-trared Thom darge You sent Petroleum- derived
from large quantities of microscopic aquatic organism such as algae u plontions -Accumulation of dead marine
organisms on the accon floor were covered by ScalimAnToung - Muddy rock gradually formed rock (shale)
containing dispersed ol - sandstone formed on to posi chale, they all pook become to form. - Prosucts: Gases,
fasoline, Aviation tule (Airplane), Heating oll, Dusedoll, Naphtha fireasca war, Asphalt: from furnace, heated crude
oil. Advantages Chury bils from oil stack dollsoul) - Pisascontagia •Moderate cost Calsand) high vort (oll shaw)
large potential supplies, low net energy yuld specially oil sands in Lanada. Large amount of warci neched Gasily
transported olim 4 between countries for processing. Severe land disrupron from • efficient distribution. surface
mining System in glace technology is well developed water polustion trom mining. residues Air pollution when
burned •Co Natural gas occurs deep beneath the car this surface. Comusts mainly of actione, I compound of one
carbon atom emissions when burned. 44 hy Jugen -form's on top oil. Domany componet methane formation: duran,
cand silt (plant & Anumal Remains) Sand Cilt Rock foil Gas Deposite) You sent Advantage Ample supplies Highout
energy yubs •Low cost (olhuge subride). •Less dir pollution that. Other fossil fuels. Lower co, emission than other
duls Moderate environmental Gasily transported by Pipcling Low land we Good fuel for ful Cells & gas turbino
Nuckar linergy - nuclear reactions occur when atoms of one species of chemical element are transformed into
DECINS of another species by nuclear change & this occur in Zways Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules
that make up gases, liquals & solids, Atoms themselves are made up. protoer, neutroer, clectrons. Atom now wellus
(or core) contwining protons & neutrons, wbichis surrounded by elections 2 ways FISSION- splitting of heary stoms
into lighter atoms fussion combination of 2 light atoms to from heaner atoms Nuction fuul Uranium most widely
uses by muchas plants for nuclear fission Nuclear power plants voca cuntain kund of Uranium; V-285, tos fuul
because stoms are cosuly Split aport You sent Disadvantag Nonrenewable resource •Releases cogwhen burned.
Methane (a greenhouse gad can leak from pipeline •Difficult to transfer from one country to another Shipped accross
ocuan as highly explosive ING • Sometinges burned off a wasted at wells because of las price • Requries pipelines
You sent -Advantage Large the supply . Ingo cost cow netenergy yield Low environmental imput (w/out aceltents) I
as much los arcoal - High environmental lima a Catastrophic doutents Noderate land disruption No widely aceptable
col. water pollution Subject to teriost attacks Modnate land wо •Spreads koowledge & technology for builting nude
an weaponr Low risk of acudents Garth's Water 17. freshwater, 21. Freshwater frown 99%. Saltwater. 0.5
noncónsumable. 0.5% Garconsumtion (lond, lakes, ners) -World leans Pautic Ocean - largest ocean. 481 seawater.
Deepest ocean bes the Marina Trench is located in it (340,00ft) Atlantic caan 2nd largest Ocean. 231. seawater. Mist
thaves ocean oute fed floor spreading / Qingere. Indian Ocean Warmest ocean. Monsoons occur here. 40% oll
production Arctic duan-smallest Ocean Near North pole cover by Writing ich Water acce- constantly bring cycled
between the atmosphere, the ocean, land. Help sustain life on Garthocu uvaporation-liquid to gas (waimed by the
sun & evaporate) I Condensation -gas-liquid. Dro puts of watin form clouds/ Precipitation-temp. & atmosphene
pressure an right- raindrops fall You sent Surtal rusets much water returns again to ocians Where great deal of crap.
occurs Percolation (Infiltration) - rain water soaks into the ground. bater retuins at springs / low spots. percolates
Underground i -Grov Wwater caves (karst features) Transpiration plants absorb water from soll. Roots-leaves. bece
waterreach leaves, it to aporates, add amount of water vapor in the air > compler process / weather patterns that help
grow crops & luman need too Soil Recourus •Pedology suence dealing wl study of soil. • Agriculture applied carece
ol soll cultivation for crop production Agroning surnce & technology produong da using plants for food, full, fiber,
land reclamation Soll product of the process of weathering & erosion. Humus - material prosliced by decompostion
of Plant & Animal remains Soll Compositionn • 45% mineral particles (juses of rock) •sio.ganic matter (mumus) ・
25% Water (preipitation). •25) Air (More sandycoll, less day coll abundance of the elements in crust, buan, plant
Soil organicms? bavna, fungi, algal, microscopic woims • provide ecological sirius You sent Soil formation
•Bedrock begins to disintegrate • Organic materials faulitate disintegration Horizons form •Developed soil supports
thick veget tron five factors that affect the process of coil formation In I Jevelopment. Parent material-typrof rock
material the soll is formed from (atologic maternal) Glmate-temp & moisture charac of the are a in which the soil
was formed. • Living organisms - organisms Iwe w/in soil Cinclude plast) Topography - slope chama of soll
time/weathering-age of the soil & it's climats. Il pes of parent marterial that affets s0L- Porent material are formed
by the disintegration & decomposition of rock. They are classifed according to the way they were moved &
scattered fatologie ma Organic matter - organic soil occur where formerly shallbo ponds supported swamp
regetation. The wet condition slowed decory of tead plants so that organic matter Could accumulate (contains
carbon) 12 types: Peat & muck, muck decompared that pat - affect coul It refers to the slope Ch. It incuentes the
degreel. Steepness length, shape, theer factors in thre a direction of a sloze the amount of rainwaten nirots soils on
step wattk slopes have higher amounts of mnoff a crosion than on level topography You sent living bigonem affets
soll. Dregoniom the greatest affect is from plant that oncu grew in it "batire regetation o it delermines the kind &
amount of soul organic matter in the coll 19 In turnus it's development (plants, grimals) o weathering D 2 types:
Physical whiothering, effects of climate foctors temp. water wind (freezing & thawing is a major contributor to
physical wearinering a Chemical weathering, changes clumical makeup of rock & breaks it down Palmwater is
midly audic, conslowly dissolve many soll materials Oxidation decomposed rock. Cause soil to develop rapidly,
plant mutrients. are released & organic matter accumulates -soll develop faster in humid region than and regions
affert coal Nature soll icot prok productivity/ high amount of organik matter ir, minirals continu to break vown &
clay is hached into subsoil. •limate rainfall, freezing, thawing, wind, sunlight offertroll: Characterized by hot
summers I cow Soil Porosity & Permability • Porosity -volume of water that fits between soil particles Primeability
rate of how of water through coll You sent Soll Conservation - explain coil erosion Causes y esfects. "Improves
quality 5011 Methods Soil moves due to waleriwind, people loss of topsoll, the most fertile soll ends up as sediment
in water foil is renewable - Irrigation Chulp plants grow ) -Sanitation & Waterlogging - Desertification Soil texture
Loam Ideal agricultural soll. Plants grown in sandysoul - more susceptible to maliñal deficienciers & drought •
Plants grown in clay coals - more" to water logging boy gen depletion Soil torture Thangle ~Soil Authty (PH)~、
PH-concentration of Ht lons Scale (very autic) - 14 (very basic/lalkaline) hebliny sell 4-8 • Causes of changes and
rain, decomposition, was litter, moing Foo Remediation for high pir, add hat litter Too low jadd lime Soll nutrients
Drganic animal manure, compore (slow-acting, long lasting • Inviganic chemical compounds (fast-acting, short
lasting) -lion-naturally excuing locke present in earth crust 851. all organic matter in coll Metallic Ores-natural
occuring rocks contains high concentration of metallic maturnal