IKAST-BRANDE GYMNASIUM

Physics for Pre-IB

Notes 2020-2021

A. Meroni

DOLOR SET AMET

Introduction

“Physics is the most fundamental and all-inclusive of the sciences, and

has had a profound effect on all scientific development. In fact, physics
is the present-day equivalent of what used to be called natural
philosophy, from which most of our modern sciences arose. Students
of many fields find themselves studying physics because of the basic
role it plays in all phenomena. In this chapter we shall try to explain
what the fundamental problems in the other sciences are, but of course
it is impossible in so small a space really to deal with the complex,
subtle, beautiful matters in these other fields. Lack of space also
prevents our discussing the relation of physics to engineering,
industry, society, and war, or even the most remarkable relationship
between mathematics and physics. (Mathematics is not a science from
our point of view, in the sense that it is not a natural science. The test
of its validity is not experiment.) We must, incidentally, make it clear
from the beginning that if a thing is not a science, it is not necessarily
bad. For example, love is not a science. So, if something is said not to
be a science, it does not mean that there is something wrong with it; it
just means that it is not a science.”
Richard P. Feynman
Gravitational wave event detected by the LIGO experiment
September 14, 2015.
 C HAPTER 1

Physics as a
Science

The word Physics comes from the Greek word Physis,

which means Νature. Physics is the study of everything
that surround us that is Nature. The goal of Physics is
to express everyday happenings though a concise
mathematical formulation. The latter is most of the
time a mathematical model that can be used by other
scientists to predict results of their experiments. For
example Isaac Newton (1642–1727) found the laws
behind the motion of bodies and today we use these
laws to design rockets that travel to the Moon and
other planets. In order to describe Nature, we have to
define physical quantities and describe them
appropriately i.e. we need units. These units are
defined by the International System (on the right).
S ECTION 1 The word Physics derives from the Greek word Physis,
which means Νature. So, as the word suggests, physics
General methods in physics has one goal: studying everything that surround us, i.e.
Nature itself.

Physics is per se an empirical science. This means

that physics lies its foundations on information that
are obtained through investigations.

C ONTENT The goal of Physics is to express everyday happenings

1. Obtaining evidence
2. Qualitative and quantitative data
3. Variables
though a concise mathematical formulation which we
call physical theory.
Physical theories are formulated through different
methods that are based on the idea of obtaining
evidence through what we call the scientific
method.

What is the scientific method? Using a clear and

definite method, physicists can compare theoretical
findings (laws and formulas) with the conclusions
drawn from the experiments that they performed
and/or observations that they gathered. In this way
physicists are able to test the validity of a theory in a
logical, unbiased, and repeatable way.

This means that the validity of a physical theory is

ultimately determined by the experimental results and

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whether they confirm or disprove the theory we are
using.
Using the scientific method we are able to test the
validity of theory and use it for advancing in our
general knowledge of Nature.
But what is evidence? Evidence in physics consists of
observations and/or experimental results that can be
used to support or reject a scientific hypothesis in
accordance with the scientific method.
Evidence can be obtained in general using three
methods.
Evidence in Physics
• Observations: recording of data about phenomena
happening in Nature without the human interference.
These data can be recording with the help of
instruments.
• Experiments: controlled procedure carried out to
support, refute, or validate a hypothesis.
• Computer modelling and simulations: scientific
modeling are used to gain insight into natural
phenomena that cannot be studied for example because
not accessible or impossible to reproduce in the lab.
Exercise 1
Find information about these examples and discuss with
your group which type of evidence they represent
(observations, experiments or computer simulations) and
what is the discovery they are related to.
1. Galileo Galilei’s and the moons of Jupiter
2. Gregor Mendel’s study on cross-breeding pea plants.
3. Modelling the current motion of the galaxies.
4. Observations of the radiation emitted by distant galaxies
and the cosmic background radiation (CMB) that is
present in all the Universe.
5. Rutherford and the Geiger and Marsden’s study on alpha
particles impacting a metal foil.
6. The Millennium simulation.
7. Great leaps forward have been made thanks to
intuition, speculation and creativity. Another
driver of scientific discovery is serendipity, or ‘happy
accident’. In the pursuit of new data, scientists can come
across unexpected findings in their work in the lab or in
the field which can lead to great discoveries. Perhaps the
most famous example of scientific serendipity is the
discovery of penicillin. Research this case and write
down a short summary.
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Data, or evidence, can be in two basic forms:
quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative data are based on measurable
quantities and are therefore numerical. They are
measured using tools or instrumentation yielding
values with (standardised) units. For example, the
temperature of a reaction mixture (in Celsius) or the
volume of gas (in cubic meter).
Qualitative data deal with apparent or implicit
qualities and are expressed in words. They are usually
observations, made either in an experiment or from an
examination of something. The following are examples
of qualitative data: ‘the reaction mixture turned
cloudy’; ‘when the two objects collided, a loud noise
was heard’; ‘this type of insect lifts its wings when
threatened’.
In physics you will deal with the qualitative and the
quantitative, that is, descriptions of phenomena using
words and descriptions using numbers. When we use
words we need to interpret the meaning and one
person's interpretation will not necessarily be the same
as another's. When we deal with numbers (or
equations), providing we have learned the rules, there
is no mistaking someone else's meaning. It is likely that
some readers will be more comfortable
with words than symbols and vice-versa.
Most of our conclusions however will be drawn using
quantitative data since we will collect dataset and we
will process data in order to interpret them and
Exercise 2
Identify each variable as quantitative or qualitative:
1. Amount of time to finish your last physics report.
2. Number of students in pre-IB Maths.
3. Rating of your textbook as excellent, good, satisfactory,
terrible.
4. Gender of a student.
5. Number of errors on a final exam for 10th-grade
students.
6. Height of the Tour Eiffel.
7. Eye colour for children aged less than 14.
8. Amount of time it takes to travel to work.
9. Rating of a country’s leader: excellent, good, fair, poor.
10.Country of origin in pre-IB.
11.Number of emails received by a high school student at
your school per week.
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Once you have collected a set of measurements, how
can you display this set in a clear, understandable and
readable form? First, you must be able to define what is
meant by measurement or ‘data’ and to categorize the
types of data you are likely to encounter.

Variables in Physics

A dependent variable measures an outcome of a study.

An independent variable explains the changes in the

dependent variable. So taken different values of the
independent variable, the dependent variable changes.
Exercise 3
A controlled variable is what is a variable kept constant
throughout an experiment. The table below gives you the data for an experiment
involving the length (mm) of a metal alloy bar used in
electronic equipment when it is exposed to heat (°C).
If the study is to determine the relationship between
weight and blood pressure, then weight is the
independent variable and blood pressure is the
dependent variable. If the study is to investigate the 1. What is the independent variable and the dependent
relationship between the level of fertilizer and the crop variable in this case?
volume during an agricultural season, then the level of
2. Make a graph with the data points. Wy the graph is more
fertilizer is independent, the crop is the dependent.
useful than the table? What can we see from the graph
The independent variable should be on the that the table does not show?
horizontal axis with the dependent variable on 3. TOK Does a graph without label have meaning?
the vertical axis.

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S ECTION 2
Quantities and Units
C ONTENT
1. Physical quantities and Units
2. The International System
3. Fundamental and derived units
4. Multipliers
The quantities that a physicist measures are called physical
quantities.
Physical quantities can be, for example, the mass, the time,
the temperature. Each of these physical quantities can be
measured with a tool and for each of them we use a symbol,
m, t, T. Physical quantities are characterized by:
a magnitude (a number) and a unit.
For example, we can measure the length of a table as 103 cm.
From the measurement we then know the magnitude (the
measured number) 103 and the units used to measure the
length, i.e., centimeter - shortened cm.
We will always write a physical quantity as a number followed
by its units!
We can distinguish between fundamental and derived
units.
Fundamental units are defined through the International
System (SI in short). They are:
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 Every physical quantity has a symbol. The symbol can be a
PHYSICAL
UNIT NAME UNIT SYMBOL lower case or in upper case.
QUANTITY

meter m length Normally we use the letter of the alphabet. However,

kilo Kg mass sometimes we use the greek alphabet to indicate physical
second s time quantities. For example the density is indicated by ρ (rho), an
angle is indicated by θ (theta) and the wavelength is indicated
Ampere A current
by λ (lambda).
thermodynamic
Kelvin K
temperature You probably already saw the symbol Δ which is indicating
amount of ‘change’.
mole mol
substance
candela cd luminous intensity

All the other units are called derived units. For example the
Newton (symbol N) is the unit of the Force ( F = ma ) so 1N is
going to be 1 unit of mass times one unit of acceleration i.e.
m
kg ⋅ .
s2

Usually we write a physical quantity using a notation.

Physical quantity notation

When you want to write a physical quantity you should

• write the symbol for the physical quantity

• write the symbol ‘=’

• write the number (the numerical value of the quantity)

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Exercise 1
Among many physical quantities we can name height,
velocity and acceleration. Do you know the symbols used
for these physical quantities in the SI? Use Internet to
find them in case you do not know.
Exercise 2
Find the units of volume, mass and density in the SI.
Exercise 3
Find 5 derived quantities (use Internet).
Exercise 4
Using the physical quantity notation write down in SI
units:
• The mass of the Sun.
• The temperature on the Moon.
• The speed of light.
• The speed of the Earth around the Sun.
• The Volume of an olympic swimming pool.
• The area of the Louvre in Paris.
• The density of Jupiter.
Most of the time we want to calculate some physical quantity
out of some measurement we have done, for example if we
measure distance and time we can calculate the velocity as
d
v=
t
where d id the distance and t is the time.
In this case we use a formula. A formula is a bunch of
symbols together. The usual rules that you know (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division) are valid also for
formulas. For example:
1. Sum: we can add velocities
vTotal = v1 + v2 + v3
2. Subtraction: we can calculate differences in times
Δt = t2 − t1
3. Multiplication: one of the most famous formula of
physics, the second Newton’s law is a multiplication:
F =m⋅a
4. Division: for example the velocity
d
v= .
t
Why formulas are important? Because the symbolic
expression is valid for every number and therefore in many
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calculations instead of working with numbers we can work Exercise 5
with symbols!
Rearrange the following formula making the subject of
It is very useful at this point that you are familiar with the equation the symbol in parenthesis.
fractions and practice how to derive a physical quantity from a
formula. I. s = u ⋅ t − 1/2 ⋅ a ⋅ t 2 (a)

II. v = u + a ⋅ t (u)
Worked Example
m
The formula for the thermal energy is ΔEth = m ⋅ c ⋅ ΔT. III. ρ = (V )
V

i) Find the specific heat capacity c. IV. P = R ⋅ I 2 (I )

ii) What is the unit in the IS? V. m⋅g⋅h =P⋅t (g)

Solution Exercise 6

i) The specific heat capacity can be found if we divide the 1

The formula for the kinetic energy is EK = ⋅ m ⋅ v 2. Find
left hand side (LHS) and right hand side (RHS) by m ⋅ ΔT 2
so we get: the velocity v. What is its unit of v in the IS?

ΔEth Exercise 7
c= .
m ⋅ ΔT
The formula for the force is F = m ⋅ a. The unit of F is the
ii) The units can be found substituting the units for Newton (N). What is the unit of the force in the IS?
ΔEth, m, ΔT in the formula above:
Exercise 8
J
[c] = . p2
Kg ⋅ K The kinetic energy can be written also as EK =
2⋅m
Here the units has been indicated with [...] because we where p is the ‘momentum’. Find the unit of p in the IS.
do not want to confuse it with the physical quantity.

10
Sometimes, in order to make our life easier in physics we use
SYMBOL POWER OF 10 NAME
metric multipliers. In the two following tables you can
read the symbols and the power of 10 of these metric
m -3 milli
multipliers. For example, if you have an hard-disk that can
µ -6 micro
contain 1 Tera-bytes of data you can write 1 TB and
n -9 nano
12
1 TB = 1000000000000 bytes = 10 bytes = 1000 GB.
p -12 pico

Worked Example f -15 femto

a -18 atto
1. Use the metric multipliers to express the following
quantities. z -21 zepto

y -24 yocto
a) 78000 kg
SYMBOL POWER OF 10 NAME
b) 0.00000023 m
k 3 kilo
Solution
M 6 mega
a) 78000kg = (7.8 ⋅ 104)kg = (78 ⋅ 103)kg = 78 Mg G 9 giga

b) 0.00000023 m = 230 ⋅ 10−9 m = 230 nm T 12 tera

2. Use the definition of metric multiplier to convert into P 15 peta

decimal notation a) 0.531 MeV (eV is electronvolt) b) E 18 exa

1560μW (W is Watt)
Z 21 zetta
Solution Y 24 yotta

a) 0.531 MeV = 531000 eV

b) 1560 μW = 0.001560 W

11
 Let’s go back for a moment to the table of length 103 cm. This
Exercise 9
means that the length of the table is 103 times long as 1 cm.
Compute the following: Therefore, if we change the unit to meters, the magnitude
must be 100 times smaller than the length perceived in cm.
a) 2 km in m
The length can also be written in kilometers (km) as 0.00103
b) 0,000234 m in cm, mm and µm km. Thus we obtain that the table length is

c) 419 · 105 J in kJ, MJ and GJ 103 cm = 1.03 m = 0.00103 km.

Exercise 10 You can formulate the following rule of thumb. For example,
if you make the device 1000 times larger (from m to km), then
Using multipliers write (use internet): the magnitude number will be 1000 times smaller - and
vice-versa.
i) the mass of the proton,
If the magnitude has to be 1000 times smaller, then you need
ii) the mass of the Sun,
to move the comma only of 3 places to the left. If the
iii) the velocity of light, magnitude has to be made 1000 times bigger, the comma
must be moved 3 places to the right.
iv) the wavelength of the colours red, blue and green,
In physics we like very much to write down numbers using the
v) the radius of a nucleus, scientific notation. For example, the speed of light is
vi) the half-life of the tau particle. 299792458 m/s but it is a bit cumbersome to remember all
these numbers so we can just move the comma of eight
Exercise 11 position and write

a) Convert m/s to km/h. m m

299792458 = 2.99792458 ⋅ 108
s s
kg
b) The density of water is approx. 1000 . Convert it to
m3 The fact that we have factorized 108 is expressing the
g number in scientific notation. We are not yet satisfied though,
.
cm 3 because we do not want to see all these digits after the
comma, so we are going to approximate this number to the
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first digit after the comma. Since the first digit after the Exercise 12
comma is 9 then we have to round to the next integer i.e. 3. So
we have: Write each number in scientific notation rounding to 3
m m m significant figures.
299792458 = 2.99792458 ⋅ 108 ≈ 3 ⋅ 108 .
s s s 1. 253.8

Definition of scientific notation 2. 0.00781

A positive number N is written in scientific notation if is 3. 7405239

expressed in the form
4. 0.00000010448
N = a ⋅ 10k
5. 4.9812
where 1 ⩽ a ⩽ 10 and k is an integer.
6. 0.001991

Worked Example 7. 150000000000 m

Use scientific notation to calculate the following

a) 2500000000 Using scientific notation means that we are using some rules
that we learn in math, the laws of exponents.
b) 0.0000000012
Laws of exponents:
c) 0.00000078
1. a ⋅ 10 x ⋅ b ⋅ 10 y = a ⋅ b ⋅ 10 x+y
2. a ⋅ 10 x + b ⋅ 10 x = (a + b) ⋅ 10 x
Solution
2. a ⋅ 10 x + b ⋅ 10 y = (a + b ⋅ 10 y−x )10 x
a ⋅ 10 x
a) 2500000000 = 2.5 ⋅ 109 4. = ab 10 x−y
b ⋅ 10 y

b) 0.0000000012 = 1.2 ⋅ 10 −9 5. (a ⋅ 10 x ) y = a y ⋅ 10 x⋅y

c) 0.00000078 = 7.8 ⋅ 10−7 where 1 ⩽ a ⩽ 10 and 1 ⩽ b ⩽ 10.

13
For example if we want to calculate the velocity of an object Exercise 13
moving at 600 km per second we can calculate it using the
scientific notation and the rules given before: A. Write each number in scientific notation rounding to 3
significant figures.
600 km 600 ⋅ 103m 3−(−3) m 2 6 8m
= = 300 ⋅ 10 = 3 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 = 3 ⋅ 10
2 ms 2 ⋅ 10−3 s s s 1. 0.00781
Worked Example
2. 7405239
Use scientific notation to calculate the following
3. 0.00000010448
a) 64000 ⋅ 2500000000.
B. Write each number in the ordinary decimal notation
0.00000078
b) 1. 2.7 ⋅ 10−3
0.0000000012
2. 5 ⋅ 107
c) 0.00000078 ⋅ 0.0000000012
3. 9.035 ⋅ 10−8
d) 0.0001 ⋅ 10000
4. 4.18 ⋅ 1012
Solution
C. Use the scientific notation and the laws of exponents
a) 64000 ⋅ 2500000000 = (6.4 ⋅ 104) ⋅ (2.5 ⋅ 109) = 16 ⋅ 104+9 =
to perform the indicated calculation.
1.6 ⋅ 101 ⋅ 1013 = 1.6 ⋅ 1014

0.00000078 7.8 ⋅ 10 −7 1. (2.5 ⋅ 10−3) ⋅ (10 ⋅ 105)

b) = = 6.5 ⋅ 10−7−(−9) = 6.5 ⋅ 102
0.0000000012 1.2 ⋅ 10 −9
(2 ⋅ 103)
2.
c) 0.00000078 ⋅ 0.0000000012 = 7.8 ⋅ 10−7 ⋅ 1.2 ⋅ 10−9 = (4.67 ⋅ 105)
9.36 ⋅ 10−7−9 = 9.36 ⋅ 10−16 (2 ⋅ 103) ⋅ (4.7 ⋅ 10−34)
3.
d) 0.0001 ⋅ 10000 = 10−4 ⋅ 104 = 10−4+4 = 100 = 1 (4.67 ⋅ 105)

4. (2 ⋅ 103) ⋅ (2.8879 ⋅ 1013)2

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C HAPTER 2

Motion

Motion is the topic of a giant branch of

physics called ‘Mechanics’ which studies
the movement of physical bodies when
they displace due to physical forces and
their subsequent effects on the
environment around them. This
discipline has been firstly studied in
Ancient Greece, by Aristotle and
Archimedes. Mechanics is divided into
‘Kinematics’, the study of motion, and
‘Dynamics’ which is the study of what
causes the motion of an object, or in
other words of forces.
S ECTION 1 The first thing we need to define is how to describe a moving
body.
Kinematics

C ONTENT

1. Distance
2. Speed
3. Average and instantaneous speeds
4. Distance - time graphs
5. Velocity - time graphs
6. Acceleration
Take Flash for example. Flash moves very fast clearly. In
order to describe what He does we have to measure:
- a starting point (let’s call it point A)
- a point of arrival (let’s call it point B)
- the time taken to move from point A to B, T .
Let’s suppose that He moves horizontally for a moment. The
three parameters described above are enough to give us more
information, that is:

-the distance covered: xB − xA

- the speed of Flash i.e. how fast He covers the distance

xB − xA:
xB − xA
v=
T

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Of course in this game of calculating distances and velocities Worked Example
we need the units of the International System so if you have to
calculate something better doing it with those units! Sound travels in vacuum with a speed of 1235 km h −1.

i) Convert the velocity in ms −1.

The speed of an object is calculated as how fast we
cover a certain distance or, in other words, as a ii) Calculate how much time is needed to cover 50 cm.
change in distance over a change in time:
Solution
Δd
v= . km 1000 m m
Δt i) We have that = = 0.28 . So we get:
h 3600 s s
The velocity is measured in m/s (or m ⋅ s −1). km m m
1235 = 1235 ⋅ 0.28 = 343.06
h s s
d d
Worked Example ii) From the formula v = we get that t = so we can
t v
calculate the amount of time as
The current men's world and women’s record is 9.58 s and
d 50 ⋅ 10−2 m −3
10.49 for 100 m (Usain Bolt in 2009 and Florence t= = = 0.00145749 s = 1.46 ⋅ 10 s
v 346.06 m ⋅ s −1
Griffith-Joyner in 1988). What is their velocities? What is
the relative velocity between the two?
Exercise 1
Solution
A cyclist travels 16 km in 90 minutes. Calculate, in ms −1 ,
Their velocities are respectively
the speed of the cyclist.
100m m 100m m
= 10.44 and = 9.53 Exercise 2
9.58s s 10.49s s
100m 100m m The speed of light in a vacuum is 3 × 108ms −1 . A star is 17
The difference is − = 0.91
9.58s 10.49s s light years from Earth (1 light year is the distance travelled
by light in one year). Calculate the distance of the star from
Earth in km.

17
 Exercise 3 Worked Example

While various incarnations of the Flash have proven their If you drive for 60 km h −1 for 2 hours and 90 km h −1 for 20
ability to run at light speed, the ability to steal speed from minutes what is the average velocity in m/s?
other objects allows Flash to even significantly surpass this
Transform then your result in km/h.
velocity. In “Flash: The Human Race” Wally is shown
absorbing kinetic energy to an extent enabling him to move Solution
faster than teleportation and run from the end of the
universe back to earth in less than a Planck instant (Planck We have that the total distance covered is
km km h
time 1tP = 5,4 × 10−44s ). Calculate the velocity of Flash 60 ⋅ 2h + 90 ⋅ = 150km. So we get:
h h 3
considering the diameter of the visible Universe as 91
150000 m m
billion light-years (1 light year is the distance travelled by vAverage = = 17.9
140 ⋅ 60s s
light in one year).
If we want to transform back the velocity in km/h we have
Exercise 4 1
to know that 1 h = 3600 s which means that h = 1 s so
3600
How long does it take for a laser beam to go to the Moon
we have 1 s = 0.00028 h. So we can write finally:
and come back again to Earth?
m 0.001 km km
Instantaneous speed vs average speed. Often we want vAverage = 17.9 = 17.9 = 63.93
s 0.00028 h h
to compare velocities to know how quickly we move. Think for
example when you leave your home in the morning to reach Sometimes though it is important to focus in the velocity at a
school. You are moving with different velocity all that time! certain instant. We talk then about the instantaneous
In order to be able to compare we often use the average speed, speed. If we have a distance-time graph it is very easy!
meaning In fact the instantaneous speed is the tangent (the
average speed = total distance/total time taken. slope of the line just touching the curve) to the graph at
the instant of time we want to analyze.

18
 Exercise 7
1. The variation of the velocity of an object with time is
shown on a graph. What does the area under the graph
represent?

A. The distance

B. Velocity

C. Acceleration

D. Impulse

2. Ann runs along a long straight track. The variation of

his speed v with time t is shown below.

Exercise 6
1. In the figure above calculate the instant velocity

a. at 5 s

b. at 8 s.

c. at 13 s

d.at 16 s

2. Try now to trace a graph like the one below about how
your distance is changing in the morning while coming
to school and try to calculate what is your average After 25 seconds Ann has run 200 m. What are the
speed. Discuss this with a classmate. average and instantaneous speed at t=25 s?

19
Up to now we have considered only constant speeds but the Exercise 8
world is certainly not described only by those!
A particle accelerates from rest. The graph shows how the
Let’s think for example to what happen to a car when it gets acceleration a of the particle varies with time t.
green light to a cross light. The car starts from still (meaning
What is the speed of the particle at t = 6.0 s?
zero speed) and changes progressively the velocity till , let’s
say, 70 km/h. When we want to break because of a red light A. 0.5 m ⋅ s −1
we will instead reduce the velocity progressively till we reach
zero speed. In both cases we can talk about acceleration. B. B. 2.0 m ⋅ s −1

C. 9.0 m ⋅ s −1
The acceleration of an object is calculated as a rate of
change of the speed, in other words, as a change in D. 18 m ⋅ s −1
speed over a change in time:

Δv
a= .
Δt

The acceleration is measured in m /s 2 (or m ⋅ s −2). In

the (v,t) plane the acceleration is the slope.

20
S ECTION 2 The equation of motions are some mathematical equations we
can use to describe the motion of a body, from start to end.
The equations of motion Let’s think about a traffic in the car.

C ONTENT

1. The suvat equations

2. The case of uniform acceleration
3. The motion in the presence of gravity

Now we will be able to describe its movements using:

s, the final position (assuming initial position s0 = 0 m),

u, the initial velocity,

v, the final velocity,

a, the acceleration,

t, the final time (assuming initial time t0 = 0 s).

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The equations can also be called s-u-v-a-t equations because Exercise 1
of the name of the symbols. The s-u-v-a-t equations are very
useful in cases where the acceleration is constant. In this case The fastest animal on Earth is the jaguar. It can reach a
we speak about uniformly accelerated motion. maximal speed of 113 km/h. It has been registered that a
jaguar can in 2,00 s change its speed from zero to 70,0
Laws of motion km/h.
v−u
1. a= OR v = u + a ⋅ t How much is the jaguar’s acceleration (assuming is
t constant during the motion)?
1 2
2. s =u⋅t+ at After how many meters this animal can reach a speed of
2
36,0 km/h?
3. v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Exercise 2
(v + u)t
4. s = A boat in the Amazon River accelerates uniformly from
2
rest after 8 s it has travelled 120 m. Calculate: (i) its
average acceleration (ii) its instantaneous speed after 8 s.
Worked Example
Exercise 3
A car accelerates on a straight, flat, horizontal road with an
acceleration a = 0.3 m ⋅ s −2 and it covers in 10 s a distance The yellowfin tuna is capable of speeds of up to 75 km/h.
of 400 m. What was the initial velocity of the car? What is the maximum distance they can cover in 5
minutes?
Solution
Exercise 4
We should use equation 3 in this case since we have s=400
m, t=10s and a = 0.3 m ⋅ s −2. Using the equations of motion, can you express time with
only distance, initial velocity and final velocity? Write
1 1
s − 2 at 2 400 − 2
⋅ 0.3 ⋅ 102 400 − 15 down the equation.
u= = = = 38.5 m ⋅ s −1
t 10 10

22
 Up to now we describe motion essentially on a flat direction.
Investigate!
But what to a body that is moving vertically? For example,
A small accelerates from rest. A sensor measuring the
let’s drop a stone on the ground. What are the equations that
distance can record through LoggerPro the motion of the
describe this motion? And what happens if instead of a stone
car in a distance-time graph.
we have a feather?

Well, the answer is again s-u-v-a-t!

Certainly the stone and the feather move in a different way

(one is faster than the other), however in both cases the
acceleration is produced by the Earth itself and it is called the
gravitational acceleration.

In 1638 Galileo Galilei understood that the difference between

the motion of a stone and of a feather was due to air friction.
He understood that if we were able to remove the air (such
that vacuum is created) the two object would fall with the
1. Can we use the suvat equations? same acceleration.

2. Which of the equations of motions can be used here to fit

the data?

3. How can you find the acceleration of the car? Probably

in LoggerPro if you want to fit your data with one of the
suvat equations you need to define a new function!

4. The distance sensor records also the speed of the car.

Can we get the acceleration also from this graph? How?

23
 On Earth the value of g is quite constant but it can vary
This acceleration is constant for all the bodies,
locally. The value of g ultimately depends on the mass of the
independently of their mass and their form and its
Earth and that’s why on the Moon is much less, around 1/6 of
value is g = 9.81 m ⋅ s −2.
that of the Earth.
Worked Example
The proof of this theory came later around 1761 by G. Adams
who studied the case of free fall of a coin and a feather in a A a diver leaps from a 6.0 m high trampoline.
vacuum tube.
How much time does it take for the diver to reach the
Below you can see a more recent video with the same kind of water?
experiment performed with a very big vacuum chamber.
Solution
So in the case we study a problem where gravity is involved we
We choose as starting time t = 0 s and the trampoline
can use the s-u-v-a-t equations where the acceleration is the
position as initial position s = 0 m. It is convenient to use a
gravitational one!
system of axis directed downwards, such that the water is
now at a distance of 3 m.
Laws of motion
v−u In this system of reference g is positive, g = 9.81 m ⋅ s −2,
1. −g = OR v = u − g ⋅ t
t because the distance of the diver from the trampoline is
increasing.
1 2
2. s =u⋅t− gt We also know that the diver is stationary (the initial
2
velocity is zero so u = 0). From equation 2 we have:
3. v 2 = u 2 − 2gs 1
s= ⋅ g ⋅ t2
(v + u)t 2
4. s =
2
At this point we should solve for t. So we get

The minus signs appearing here and there are due to the fact 2s 2 ⋅ 3m
t= = = 0.78s
that gravity is acting downwards and our y-axis is pointing g 9.81 m ⋅ s −2
upwards.
24
Exercise 5 Investigate!

1. A student drops a stone from rest at the top of a well. She

hears the stone splash into the water at the bottom of the
well 2.3 s after releasing the stone. Ignore the time taken for
the sound to reach the student from the bottom of the well.

a) Calculate the depth of the well.

b) Calculate the speed at which the stone hits the water

surface.

c) Explain why the time taken for the sound to reach the
student can be ignored.
2. A hot-air balloon is rising vertically at a constant speed of
5 m ⋅ s −1 . A small object is released from rest relative to the
balloon when the balloon is 30 m above the ground.
a) Calculate the maximum height of the object above the
ground.
b) Calculate the time taken to reach the maximum height.
c) Calculate the total time taken for the object to reach the
ground.
3. A ball dropped from a certain height bounces many times
and then it stops. Why?
4. On Mars g = 3.7 m ⋅ s −2. Why?
Let’s use a ruler with a series of black stripes equally distant
Δ𝑠= 0.020 m. In LoggerPro enter this value in "Specify
distance or Length ... "under" Custom "when clicking on the
small LabPro icon in the upper left corner. Enter as User
Parameters the mass of the ruler, 𝑚, the height of the
photocell from the floor, as well as 𝑔. In the "Clock" select
"Digital Events". Please delete Acceleration and Speed graph
and Acceleration column. Rename "Distance" to "𝑠" and
"Speed" to "𝑣". 𝑠 does not match the height, but how far the
ruler has fallen below the photocell.
Hold the ruler approximately 10 cm over photocell. Click
the Collect button. Release the ruler and click the Stop
button.
Autoscale the graph. What does the graph show? How can
we use suvat equations to fit the data?
25
C HAPTER 3

Energy

‘It is important to realize that in physics today, we

have no knowledge of what energy is.’

Richard P. Feynman
S ECTION 1 Energy is surrounding us in many different forms.

Energy Let’s take a cup of hot coffee. The coffee will exchange
thermal energy with the room and with the cup. In the cup
the atoms will start to move more increasing their kinetic
energy, which in turn will increase its temperature.

If we decide to stir the coffee with a teaspoon some of the

thermal energy of the coffee will be transferred to the
teaspoon (again increasing the kinetic energy of the atoms of
C ONTENT the teaspoon and its temperature) and and some will be
transformed in friction work from the contact between the
1. What is energy? teaspoon and the coffee.
2. Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)
3. Kinetic Energy (KE)
4. Conversion of GPE in KE
5. Thermal Energy
6. Energy use and Power
7. Efficiency
8. Conversion of energy

F IGURE 3.1.1 A thermal image of a cup of coffee.

Most of us blow across the liquid surface to cool it more

quickly. This causes a more rapid loss of energy and therefore

27
the temperature of the liquid drops more quickly too (this is
an example of forced convection).
In nature there are different form of energy that can
represented with the table below.
Energy is continuously transformed from one form to
another. This lead us to a very important conclusion:
In Nature the total energy of a system is always
conserved and never destroyed.
We will focus in the first part of this Section on two types of
energy: potential and kinetic. Nature shows us that if one
holds a 1 kg object at a height of 1 meter, we say that the
object have potential energy (energy due to its position in
the gravitational field of Earth).
If we release the object it will accelerate downwards and hit
the floor. In this process the object’s velocity will increase
which means that the kinetic energy will increase (motion
energy).
Let’s try an example and click on the link on the figure (this is
a Phet simulation called ‘Energy Skate Park:Basics’) .
28
This is a simulation about the conservation of energy. If you Definition of kinetic energy (KE)
click on the ‘Bar chart’ you will see how the potential and
kinetic energies of the boy is changing in time. The kinetic energy of an object is given by:
1
Ek = ⋅ m ⋅ v 2
Exercise 1 2

How is the potential energy EP changing with respect of where v is the speed of the object and m is its mass. The
the position of the skater? Is it a proportional relation? kinetic energy is measured in Joules (J) where in the IS
Discuss with a classmate. 1 J = kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2

Exercise 2
How is the kinetic energy Ek changing with respect of the
velocity of the skater? Is it a proportional relation? Discuss
with a classmate.
Exercise 3
Focus now on the total energy of the skater. Does it
change? Explain how energy is conserved in this case (look
the bar graph).
The kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses
due to its motion. The skater has kinetic energy because she is
moving.
Worked Example
A race minicar has a maximum design speed of 36 km ⋅ h −1
and fully fueled it has a mass of 5000 kg.
Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the minicar.

Solution
Using the Phet simulation you should now have arrived at the
First we have to convert the speed in IS units.
conclusion that we can write an expression of the potential
energy and for the kinetic energy of the skater through its 36000m
36 km ⋅ h −1 = = 10 m ⋅ s −1
speed. 3600s

Moreover, following the trajectory of the skater, it seems that Using the formula of the kinetic energy we find that
what is potential energy becomes kinetic energy and
1
viceversa. Let’s formalize now these concepts! Ek = ⋅ m ⋅ v 2 = 0.5 ⋅ 5000 ⋅ 102 J = 2.5 ⋅ 105J
2

29
 Exercise 4 Definition of gravitational potential energy (GPE)

A car of mass 103 kg accelerates from a speed of 10 m ⋅ s −1
to a speed of 50 m ⋅ s −1 . Calculate the change in kinetic
energy of the car.
Exercise 5
A ball of mass 3.2 kg is thrown vertically upwards at a
speed of 10 m ⋅ s −1. Calculate the initial kinetic energy.
The formula of kinetic energy can also be reversed to find the
velocity. In this case we should rearrange it as
2 ⋅ Ek
v= .
m
The gravitational potential energy of an object is given by:
Ep = m ⋅ g ⋅ h
where m is the mass of the body, g = 9.81m ⋅ s −2 and h is the
height of the object. The potential energy is measured in
Joules (J) where in the IS 1 J = kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2
The gravitational potential energy is the energy an object has
because of its position in a gravitational field of Earth. Moving
a mass vertically up or down in the gravitational field of the
Earth,produce a change in the gravitational potential energy
(GPE).
Worked Example

Exercise 6 Ann is a snowboarder of mass 50 kg and she moves

An engine is giving to a car 130000 J. What is the speed of
the car if tis mass is 103 kg?
Exercise 7
A basketball weighing 0.70 kg is moving with the kinetic
energy 30 J. What is the speed of the basketball?
downhill of 50 m. What is the potential energy loss? At
which height does he get if she loses 10000 J?
Solution
Using the formula of the potential energy we find that
EP = m ⋅ g ⋅ Δh = 50 ⋅ 9.81 ⋅ 50 J = 24525J

Exercise 8 If Ann loses 10000 J we have 14525 J left so

14525J 14525J
What is the kinetic energy of a ball if it is moving with the Δh = = = 29.61m
m⋅g 50 ⋅ 9.81
double of the speed?

30
 Energy conservation is telling us that energy is never
destoyed, but only transformed from one form to another. At
this point we can in fact think that there are situation as
where GPE is converted in kinetic energy. Let’s think for
example to a ball that is lifted up and dropped. In this case all
the potential energy is transformed in kinetic energy. Once
the ball starts bouncing at each bounce all the potential
energy becomes kinetic energy. In this case we can talk about
conversion of GPE into KE.
Conversion of GPE in KE

1
Ep = Ek → m⋅g⋅h = ⋅ m ⋅ v2
Exercise 9 2

A ball of mass 3.2 kg is thrown vertically upwards at a speed In this case therefore the mass cancels out and we are left
of 10 m ⋅ s −1. What is the maximum Ep (use suvat)? 1
with the equality g ⋅ h = ⋅ v 2.
2
Exercise 10
Worked Example
A girl on a sledge is moving down a snow slope at
Himmelbjerget (the highest mountain in Denmark, 147 m). Ann is a snowboarder and she moves downhill of 50 m to
What is her Ep if she has a mass og 65 kg? reach the apres-ski bar. What is her speed at the bar if she
does not slow down?
Exercise 11
Solution
A man of mass m is climbing up a mountain and he reaches
a spot where his potential energy is 105J. What is his Using the conversion of GPE in KE we have v = 2 ⋅ g ⋅ h so
height when the potential energy doubles? What is the we get
potential energy at that spot for a woman weighting 2/3 of
v= 2⋅g⋅h = 2 ⋅ 9.81ms −2 ⋅ 50m = 31.3 ms −1.
the man’s weight?

31
Investigate!
Let’s examine the energy of a basketball that is being
dropped and jumps off the floor several times.
• Place the ultrasound sensor 120-130 cm above the floor.
• Connect the ultrasound-sensor to LabPro (right side) and
connect the LabPro to a PC.
• Measure the mass of the basketball, m.
• In Logger Pro set up a time based measurement with a
duration of 5 seconds and a sample rate of 30 samples/s.
• Place the ball a little more than 15 cm below the sensor.
• Press the ‘Collect’ button.
Exercise 12
A pendulum bob is released from rest 0.15 m above its rest
position. Calculate the speed as it passes through the rest
position.
Exercise 13
Antonia stands at the edge of a vertical cliff and throws a
stone vertically upwards. The stone leaves Antonia’s hand
with a speed 10 m ⋅ s −1. The time between the stone leaving
Antonia’s hand and hitting the sea is 3.0 s. Assume air
resistance is negligible. Calculate:
(i) The maximum height reached by the stone
(ii) The time taken by the stone to reach its maximum
height.
(iii) Determine the height of the cliff.
32
There is a way to measure in Nature how fast we exchange
energy i.e. using the idea of measuring the power. The power
measures exactly how many joules we exchange in one
second.
Definition of Power
ΔE
P=
Δt
−1
The power is measured in Watts and W = J ⋅ s .
In IS units W = kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −3.
In everyday life we use many different devices that have
different power. We can read the number usually at the
bottom of the device. For example an electric kettle can have
power of 2000 W.
In order to calculate electrical energy, often it is more
common to use another unit, the ‘kilowatthour’ or kWh.
This corresponds to the electrical energy that a device with a
required power 1000 W uses for an hour. Hence:
1 kWh = 1000 W · 1 hour = 1000 W · 60 · 60 s = 3.6 MJ
In Denmark the cost of each kWh is approximately 2 kr. An
average family with mother, father and 2 children has an
annual electricity consumption of approximately 5000 kWh.
Exercise 14
How much an average danish family pay per year for
electrical energy? You can ask you parents to check the
website www.ForbrugerWeb.dk, where you can see your
yearly use of water and heat.
Exercise 15
In Nørlund plantation (south of Ikast) there are 6 wind
turbines with a maximum electric power of 900 kW each.
When the wind is optimal the windmills run at "full load".
In 2017, one of the wind turbines produced 1295591 kWh
of electricity.
a) How many households with an average consumption of
5000 kWh could the turbine support?
b) If the wind turbine runs at full load, how many hours
(and then weeks) should it run to produce the specified
amount of electricity produced in 2017?
Exercise 16
When you buy an electrical device you look at the energy
efficiency label (on the right).
This refrigerator uses 280 kWh per year.
a) How much is the energy consumption per year in J per
year (the power in J/yr)?
33
 It very common that if your kettle to boil water uses 2000 W
b) How much does it cost to keep the refrigerator running
probably some of theelectrical energy will be lost.
for a year assuming you live in Denmark (1 kWh is 2 kr).
The ratio between the energy that is actually used for boiling
c) What is the average power of this refrigerator?
the water and the electrical energy given to a system is defined
as efficiency η (greek letter ‘eta’) of the kettle.

Definition of Efficiency
Eout P
η= = out
Ein Pin

The efficiency is a number between 0 and 1 so it does not

have units. It is 0 when all the energy is lost and it is 1 if all
the energy given to a system is used to complete a task.

This number is usually transformed in %.

It's almost impossible to get an efficiency of 100 % because

there will usually be a loss of energy in any process. This
means that the greater the loss, the less efficient the device is.

On an old-fashioned cooking plate with power 1.41 kW takes

10 minutes and 20 seconds to bring 1.50 kg of water from
22.2° C to boiling point.

You can now calculate the efficiency of the cooking plates.

First let’s calculate the thermal energy needed to boil the

water

ΔEth = 1.5kg ⋅ 4186 J ⋅ kg −1 ⋅ K −1 ⋅ (100 − 22.2)C = 488k J

34
This is going to be our output energy i.e. Eout = ΔEth. Now we
have to calculate the electrical energy that we provide to the
system.

ΔEin = P ⋅ t = 1.41kW ⋅ (10 ⋅ 60 + 20)s = 874200J ≈ 874k J.

Now we are ready to calculate the efficiency:

448k J
η= = 0,5582697 ≈ 56 % . The efficiency is therefore 56
874k J
% and this means that 44% of the energy in input is lost.
Exercise 17

A motor of input power 160 W raises a mass of 8.0 kg

vertically at a constant speed of 0.50 m ⋅ s −1. What is the
efficiency of the system?

A. 0.63% B. 25%

C. 50% D. 100%
Exercise 19
Exercise 18
In the table above several types of lightbulbs are shown. Let’s
A solar panel has surface area 0.40 m 2 and efficiency 50%. assume that 1kWh costs 2 kr.
The average intensity of radiation reaching the surface of
the panel is 0.25 kW ⋅ m −2. What is the average power It is estimated that a bulb is used approximately 1000 hours
output from an array of 10 of these solar panels? in a year.

A. 0.5 W B. 5 W a) How many years can a LED last?

C. 50 W D. 500 W b) Is it a suitable choice for the lamp?

35
 We met in the Basic Natural Science course another form of
Exercise 20
energy, the thermal energy.
A lamp has to be lighted up for 15000 hours - equivalent to
15 years. Definition of thermal energy

If we choose to use LED we can buy just one lightbulb but The thermal energy absorbed/emitted by an object can be
we choose instead to buy a incandescent bulb. written as

As halogen’s life is 1000 hours we should buy 15 lightbulbs. ΔEth = m ⋅ c ⋅ ΔT

Using the data given in the table for the different where the constant c is called the specific heat capacity of
lightbulbs, fill in the table below. the material. The specific heat capacity expresses “how
much thermal energy you need to increases 1 kg of a
INCANDESCENT LED
substance by 1 °C”. For this reason the value of c depends on
the substance. ΔEth is measured in Joules while c is
J
n. bulb 15 1 measured in because the temperature difference is
kg ⋅ K
Price (kr) measured in Kelvin (K).

Power (W)

Use for 1 yr (kWh) Material Specific heat (J/kg K )

Use for 15 (kWh) Water 4186

Electrical energy Ice 2040

Price for 15 yrs (kr) Aluminium 900

Price per yr (kr/yr) Iron 452

Brass 382

Lead 130

36
An old-fashioned cooking plate with an output power of 1.41 Investigate!
kW takes 10 minutes and 20 seconds to bring 1.50 kg water
The purpose of the exercise is to determine the efficiency of
from 22.2 ° C to boiling point.
cooking waters using a kettle.
You can now calculate how useful is to boil water with cooking
plates. The energy that we need - that is, the thermal
energy we need the water to absorb is following the formula

ΔEth = m ⋅ c ⋅ ΔT

If we apply it to our case we find

J
ΔEth = 1.5kg ⋅ 4186 ⋅ (100 − 22.2) K = 488039,4J ≈ 488k J.
kg ⋅ K
• Pour 1.5 liters of water in the kettle. Write down the exact
The supplied energy i.e. the electrical energy can be calculated mass and cover the kettle with the lid. Plug the power
by the power of the cooking plate meter in a socket.

ΔEin = 1.41kW ⋅ (10 ⋅ 60 + 20)s = 874200J ≈ 874k J • Reset the energy meter.

Now the efficiency can be found as • Measure the initial temperature of the water through the
little hole on the lid.
Eout
η= = 0.558 ≈ 56 % .
Ein • Connect the kettle to the energy meter.

Thus, since only 56% of the energy supplied is used, we loses • When the water boils, at the same time read the energy
around 44% of the energy supplied in other ways. meter and the temperature on the digital thermometer
and quickly pull out the plug from the energy meter (the
Exercise 21 energy meter measures in Wh)

Why the efficiency in an old cooking plates is so little? (try to • Carefully pour the boiling water into a sink.
look online).

37
Investigate! Exercise 22

• Write down the substance and the mass of the bag. Fill in the table.

• Measure the starting temperature of the bag Substance ΔEtherm c m ΔT Tfinal Tinitial

• A student is standing up on a ladder/table and holds the Water 4600 J 25 g 35.6 °C

bag at a certain height
2040 75 g 0 °C −18 °C
• Measure the height.
6.89 kJ 2.56 kg 20.7 °C 32.7 °C

• Drop the bag on the floor Aluminium 14.87 MJ 120 °C 0 °C

• Repeat this for 10 times.

• Measure the temperature of the bag again

• What is the total potential energy EP that the bag loses
(for 10 times)?
• Will all the potential energy be converted into thermal
energy ΔEth?
Conversion of thermal energy
Since energy is conserved and never destroyed, energy gets
transformed from one form to another.
Try out this simulation to see how you can transform one
kind of energy into another. Write at least two possible
transformations of energy.

38
Investigate!
We are going to play in groups to describe different objects
from the energy point of view. There are 6 possible stations
each with an object.
You should be able for each station to:
• Identify the presence of different forms of energy and
recognize the different kind.
• Observe how different objects and mechanisms convert
energy from one form to another.
• Explain the process of energy conversion.
• Understand that energy cannot be created or destroyed
only converted from one from to another.
• Write a small text on one of the object of the stations
• Energy Conversion Chart: Construct a diagram
explaining the energy conversion for one of the objects.
Exercise 23
A quantity of 0.835 kg of water is poured into a brass jug
of mass 0.287 kg. The system has a temperature of 11.6 ° C,
and at a certain instant 175.6 kJ of thermal energy is
supplied.
a) What is the final temperature of the system?
b) How much heat should be supplied to bring the water to
boiling point?
Let us look now to a special case i.e a system which is
isolated. This means that no energy can come in or go out.
Conservation of energy in an isolated system
An isolated system does not exchange any energy with the
surroundings.
This means that the change in energy in the system is zero,
so the energy is constant.
39
S ECTION 2 In our everyday life we use energy in different forms (kinetic,
potential, thermal and so on) for cooking, washing, traveling
Energy sources and much more.

But where do we take the energy that we use in our houses?

Energy can be harnessed by different sources. For example
coal (a fossil fuel) can be burned to generate chemical energy
that then can be transformed into another kind of energy, for
example mechanical one. Another example is the kinetic
energy of the wind that can be used to produce electricity.
C ONTENT
We divide energy sources into primary sources - those that
1. Sources of energy have not been transformed or converted before use by the
2. Sankey diagrams consumer, so for example coal or wind.

3. Wind power Secondary sources of energy are instead those that result
from the transformation of a primary source.
4. Water power
5. Solar power Exercise 1

Which of the following is not a primary energy source?

A. Wind turbine

B. Jet Engine

C. Coal-fired power station

D. Nuclear power station

The large demand of energy in form of electricity has

prompted nowadays the need and use of renewable

40
sources i.e. those kind of energy that can be replenished in
relatively short times (on the scale of a human lifetime). Wind
and water sources for example are continually generated from
the Sun’s energy.
Non-renewable sources, on the other hand, can be
replaced but only over very long geological times.
Natural energy sources such as crude oil, coal, and natural gas
take thousands of years to be produced naturally and cannot
be replaced as fast as we are consuming them.
It is believed that fossil-based energy sources will become too
costly to harvest and therefore society will have to rely mainly
on renewable energy sources.
In the table we have organized the different renewable and
non-renewable sources describing the associated energy.
Exercise 2
Give one example of a renewable energy source and one
example of a non-renewable energy source and explain why
they are classified as such.
The Figure 3.2.1 shows a diagram of the World Energy
consumption from the ‘IEA World energy balances 2018’. The
World energy consumption is the total energy used by the
entire world’s population. It is measured per year and it
involves all energy harnessed from every energy source across
F IGURE 3.2.1
every country. It does not include energy from food, and the
extent to which direct biomass burning has been accounted
for is poorly documented.
Institutions such as the International Energy Agency (IEA),
the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), and the
41
European Environment Agency (EEA) record and publish and a very small amount is lost through the cables in the
energy data periodically. transmission.

This diagram shows the different energy sources and their
use in ktoe i.e. kilo tonnes oil equivalent but a more common
unit is the Million tonnes oil equivalent.
Million tonnes oil equivalent (Mtoe)
One tonne of oil equivalent is the energy released when one
tonne (1000 kg) of crude oil is burnt; this is roughly 42 GJ,
leading to a value of ~ 1020 J for 2010 usage total.
Exercise 3
Usually each branch of the Sankey diagram is also reporting a
number in percentage of the initial amount of energy.
The Sankey diagram is a visual representation of the flow of
the energy in a device or in a process. It can also be used to
describe flow of people or armies (for wars) but we will now
cover this here (an example is the change in size of Napoleon’s
army during his Russian campaign).
The Sankey diagrams use some rules:

From the graph in Figure 3.2.1 (taken from ‘IEA World

energy balances 2018’) read the value of amount of coal used
worldwide in 2016. Convert the amount in Joules.

In order to represent energy flow, especially when we deal

with energy sources, we make use of diagram which are called
Sankey diagrams.

Sankey diagrams looks like the one in Fig. 3.2.2.

In this case the diagram shows how the energy flows in a

power plant using coal. The process of burning coal
transforms chemical energy into thermal energy. Part of the
chemical energy is lost in the process and a small amount of
the produced energy is used to sustain the power station. The
F IGURE 3.2.2 Sankey diagram for a coal power plant.
remaining energy is then used to be delivered to customers

42
• Each energy source and loss in the process is represented by Exercise 5
an arrow.
An electric kettle of rating 4.0 kW is switched on for 60 s.
• The diagram is drawn to scale with the width of an arrow During this time 20 kJ of energy is lost to the surroundings
being proportional to the amount of energy it represents. from the kettle.
• The energy flow is drawn from left to right. Draw a Sankey diagram for this energy transfer.
• When energy is lost from the system it moves to the top or Exercise 6
bottom of the diagram.
In a petrol-powered car 31% of the energy in the fuel is
• Power transfers as well as energy flows can be represented. converted into the kinetic energy of the car. Heating the
•Exercise 4 exhaust gases accounts for 12% of the energy lost from the
fuel. The remainer of the energy is wasted in the engine, the
An electric motor is used to lift a heavy load. The Sankey gearbox and the wheels.
diagram shows the energy transformations involved in the
Use these data to sketch a Sankey diagram for the car.
process. What is the efficiency of the motor?
We are ready now to discuss more in details renewable energy
primary sources and in particular how we extract energy we
can use in our house from the wind, the water and the Sun.

A. 33% B. 50% C. 67% D. 75%

43
I. Wind power and wind generators

There is a great deal of kinetic energy involved in the winds

that blow around the Earth. The original source of this energy
is, of course, the Sun. Different parts of the atmosphere are
heated to different temperatures. The temperature differences
cause pressure differences, due to hot air rising or cold air
sinking, and thus air flows as a result.

either to a storage system (but this increases the expense) or

to the electrical grid. In Fig. 3.2.3. you can see the average
energy power of different size of wind generators.

Wind generators can be used successfully in many parts of the

world. Even though the wind blows erratically at most
locations, this can be countered by the provision of separate
wind farms, each with large numbers of individual turbines all
connected to the electrical power grid.

There are two principal designs of generator: horizontal-axis

and vertical-axis. In both cases a rotor is mounted on an axle
that is either horizontal or vertical, hence the names.

The rotor is rotated by the wind and, through a gearbox, this F IGURE 3.2.3 SUMR project. Credit: Chao Qin
turns an electrical generator. The electrical energy is fed

44
In order to describe the power produced by a wind generator
we have to study the geometry. Let us look to Fig. 3.2.4.
Let us consider a wind turbine of blade r and a wind moving at
a speed v. We can conclude the following looking at the
picture.
F IGURE 3.2.4 Geometry of a wind turbine.
2
• The area swept out by the blades of the turbine is A = πr
• In one second the volume of air that passes the turbine
V = A ⋅ v. This is because the distance covered by the wind in
one second is d = v ⋅ t = v ⋅ 1s.
• So the mass of air that passes the turbine in one second is
m =ρ⋅V=ρ⋅A⋅v
• The Kinetic energy available in one second reads
1 1
Ek = ⋅ m ⋅ v 2 = ⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅ v 3.
2 2
1
In other words, the power available will be P = ⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅ v 3.
2
Maximum theoretical power of a wind turbine
The maximum theoretical power available for a wind turbine
1
of blade r is P = ⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅ v 3 when the wind is moving at a
2
speed v.
In practice, the kinetic energy of the incoming wind is easy to
calculate, but it cannot all be harnessed as the air must
continue to move. This means that the wind turbine cannot be
one 100% efficient.
Exercise 7
Calculate the maximum theoretical power, P, for a wind
generator whose blades are 30 m long when a 20 m ⋅ s −1 wind
blows. The density of air is 1.3 kg ⋅ m −3.
In practice, under these conditions, the generator only
provides 3 MW of electrical power.
Calculate the efficiency of this generator.
45

Exercise 8
A wind turbine with blades of length 25 m is situated in a
region where the average wind speed is 11 m ⋅ s −1 .
The available power of a wind turbine depends on factors such
as the blade’s length or the wind speed. This means that the
power increases if we increase the area swept by the blades
and the wind speed.

a) Calculate the maximum possible output of the wind Unfortunately we cannot control the wind speed and if we
turbine if the density of air is 1.3 kg ⋅ m −3. increase the length of the blade too much we risk that the
mass of the turbine is too large and the rotor is not able to
b) Outline why your estimate will be the maximum possible
rotate at low wind speeds. Advantages and disadvantages of
output of the turbine.
wind turbines are summarized in this table.
Exercise 9
Advantages Disadvantages
A wind turbine produces a power P at a particular wind
• not easy to maintain off-shores
speed. If the efficiency of the wind turbine remains constant,
•no energy costs •variable output on a daily or
estimate the power produced by the turbine: •no chemical pollution seasonal basis
•easy to maintain on land •site availability
a) when the wind speed doubles, •capital initial cost high but can •noise pollution
be reduced with economy from •visual pollution
b) when the radius of the blade length halves.
large number of turbines •ecological impact

Exercise 10
Exercise 11
A wind turbine has a power output p when the wind speed is
a) Some people object to both on- and off-shore arrays on
v. The efficiency of the wind turbine does not change. What
the grounds of visual pollution.
is the wind speed at which the power output is p/2?
b) There are also suggestions that wind farms compromise
A. v/4 B. v/ 8
animal habitats in some places and that the turbines are
C. v/2
3
D. v/ 2 noisy for those who live close by.

Discuss with one of your classmates. What do you think?

46
II. Water power and pumped storage systems
Falling water or fast water can produce power that can be
used for everyday purposes. This is called water power or
hydropower. Hydropower has been used for centuries as a
source of energy for irrigation, sawmills, textile mills, dock
cranes and many more mills.
In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for
generating electricity. The first commercial hydroelectric
power plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879. In 1881, street
lamps in the city of Niagara Falls were powered by
hydropower.
Hydropower is used primarily to generate electricity. Broad
categories include:
F IGURE 3.2.5 Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant.
● pumped storage plants
● hydroelectric plants
● tidal barrage
● tidal flow systems
● wave energy.
All these sources of energy produce power:
- using the gravitational potential energy of water held at a
level above a reservoir and then converted to electrical
energy as the water is allowed to fall to the lower level (used
in hydroelectric, pumped storage and tidal barrage).
- using the kinetic energy of moving water to transforming it
into electrical energy as the water flows or as waves move
(river or tidal flow or wave systems).
In this topic we focus on the pumped storage system.
A pumped storage system involves the use of two water
reservoirs – sometimes a natural feature such as a lake,
sometimes a man-made lake or an excavated cavern inside a
mountain. These reservoirs are connected by pipes. When
demand is high, water is allowed to run through the pipes
from the upper reservoir to the lower via water turbines
transforming potential energy into kinetic energy in the
turbines which through a generator produce electrical energy.
47
When demand is low, and electrical energy is cheap, the
turbines operate in reverse to pump water back from the
lower to the upper reservoir. This can happen for example in
the night when the cost of electrical energy is generally
cheaper.

Some pumped storage systems can go from zero to full output

in tens of seconds. The larger systems take longer to come up
to full power, however, substantial outputs are usually
achieved in only a few minutes from switch on.

For a pumped storage system that operates through a height

difference of Δh, the gravitational potential energy available is
m ⋅ g ⋅ Δh where m is the mass of water that moves through the
generator and g is the gravitational field strength.
So the maximum power P available from the water is equal to
the rate at which energy is converted in the machine and is
m ⋅ g ⋅ Δh ρ ⋅ V ⋅ g ⋅ Δh
P= =
t t
where t is the time for mass m to move through the generator,
V is the volume of water moving through the generator in time
t and ρ is the density of the water.
Maximum theoretical power of a pumped storage
F IGURE 3.2.6 Diagram of the TVA pumped storage facility at
Raccoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant.
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity allows energy from not
constant sources (such as solar, wind) and other renewables
to be saved for periods of higher demand. Further, electricity
excesses coming from other power plants based on
non-renewable sources (such as coal or nuclear) can be used
to store energy through pumped storage systems.
The reservoirs used with pumped storage are quite small
when compared to conventional hydroelectric dams of similar
power capacity, and generating periods are often less than
half a day.

The maximum theoretical power available for a pumped Advantages and disadvantages of pumped storage systems are
ρ ⋅ V ⋅ g ⋅ Δh summarized in the following table.
storage system is P = .
t

48
 Advantages Disadvantages Exercise 14

• clean production
• no harmful chemical by-
products
• renewable source of energy
• source of energy is free of cost
The diagram shows a pumped storage power station used for
• can be used only in specific the generation of electrical energy.
areas
• construction of dams

Exercise 12

Water from a pumped storage system falls through a vertical

distance of 260 m to a turbine at a rate of 600 kg ⋅ s −1. The
density of water is 1000 kg ⋅ m −3. The overall efficiency of the
system is 65%.

Calculate the power output of the system.

Exercise 13

In a hydroelectric power plant, water of density 103 kg ⋅ m −3

falls through an average height of 100m. The volume of
water flowing through the pipes per second is 10 m 3 ⋅ s −1.
What is the maximum power generated?
A. 104 W
Water stored in the tank falls through a pipe to a lake
through a turbine that is connected to an electricity
generator. The tank is 50 m deep and has a uniform area of
5 ⋅ 104 m 2. The height from the bottom of the tank to the
turbine is 310 m. The density of water is 103 kg ⋅ m −3.

B. 105 W 1. Show that the maximum energy that can be delivered to

the turbine by the falling water is about 8 ⋅ 1012 J.
C. 106 W
2. The flow rate of water in the pipe is 400 m 3 ⋅ s −1.
D. 107 W Calculate the power delivered by the falling water.

49
III. Solar energy and solar panels
Solar energy is the radiation we receive from the Sun in form
of light and heat. The technology to harness this energy is
always evolving and it comprises among others of solar
heating panels, photovoltaic panels, solar architectural
structures, artificial photosynthesis and much more.
The Earth receives around 1400 W ⋅ m −2 of incoming solar
radiation in the upper atmosphere (what we called the Solar
constant in the BNS course). There are two main ways of
harnessing the radiated energy emitted from the Sun: the
solar heating panels and the photovoltaic cells (PV cells).
Solar heating panels - They heat water using the Sun’s
energy. The water is then used for heating the house or
heating water.
A solar heating panel contains a pipe, embedded in a black
plate, through which a glycol–water mixture is circulated by a
pump (glycol has a low freezing point, necessary in cold
countries). The liquid heats up as infra-red radiation falls on
the panel. The pump circulates the liquid to the hot-water
storage cylinder in the building. A heater exchanger system
transfers the energy to the water in the storage cylinder. A
pump is needed because the glycol–water mixture becomes
less dense as it heats up and would therefore move to the top
of the panel and not heat the water in the cylinder. A
controller unit is required to prevent the system pumping hot
water from the cylinder to the panel during the winter when
the panel is cold.
50
Photovoltaic cell (otherwise known as a solar cell or in the substance (electrons in n-type, positive “holes” – an
photocell) - converts a portion of the radiated energy directly absence of electrons – in p-type).
into a potential difference (or voltage).

The photovoltaic materials in the panel convert

electromagnetic radiation from the Sun into electrical energy.
A full explanation of the way in which this happens goes
beyond the IB syllabus, but a simplified explanation is as
follows.

The photovoltaic cell consists of a single crystal of

semiconductor that has been doped so that one face is p-type
semiconductor and the opposite face is n-type. These terms
n-type and p-type indicate the most significant charge carriers

Normally there is equilibrium between the charge carriers in

both halves of the cell. However, when energy in the form of
photons falls on the photovoltaic cell, then the equilibrium is
disturbed, electrons are released and gain energy to move
from the n-region to the p-region and hence around the
external circuit. The electrons transfer this energy to the
external circuit in the usual way and do useful work.

The efficiencies of present-day solar cells are about 20% or a

little higher. However, extensive research and development is
being carried out in many countries and it is likely that these
efficiencies will rise significantly over the next few years.

F IGURE 3.2.7 Cross-section of a photovoltaic cell.

51
Advantages and disadvantages of solar panels systems are
summarized in the following table.
Advantages
• clean production
• no harmful chemical by-
products
• renewable source of energy
• source of energy is free of cost
Disadvantages
• Source of energy is unreliable.
• Can only be utilized during the
day.
• A very large area would be
needed for a significant amount
of energy
Exercise 17
A house requires an average power of 4.0 kW in order to
heat water. The average solar intensity at the Earth’s surface
at the house is 650 W ⋅ m −2 . Calculate the minimum surface
area of solar heating panels required to heat the water if the
efficiency of conversion of the panel is 22% .
Exercise 18
An alternative generation method is the use of wind
turbines. The following data are available:

Length of turbine blade = 17 m

Exercise 15 Density of air = 1.3 kg ⋅ m −3

A solar panel has surface area 0.40m2 and efficiency 50%. Average wind speed = 7.5 m ⋅ s −1
The average intensity of radiation reaching the surface of the 1. Describe the difference between photovoltaic cells and
panel is 0.25 kW ⋅ m −2. What is the average power output solar heating panels.
from an array of 10 of these solar panels?
2. A solar farm is made up of photovoltaic cells of area
A. 0.5 W B. 5 W 25000 m 2. The average solar intensity falling on the farm is
240 W ⋅ m −2 and the average power output of the farm is
C. 50 W D. 500 W
1.6 MW. Calculate the efficiency of the photovoltaic cells.
Exercise 16
3. Determine the minimum number of turbines needed to
Identify the energy changes in photovoltaic cells and in solar generate the same power as the solar farm.
heating panels.
4. Explain two reasons why the number of turbines required
is likely to be greater than your answer in 3.

52
Why renewable energy sources are important?
There is no path to protecting the climate without
dramatically changing how we produce and use electricity: a
significant percentage of CO2 pollution comes from power
plants burning fossil fuels.
Renewable energy should minimize CO2 pollution and with it
global warming since they have a much lower impact on our
environment.
But what are greenhouse gases?
The main greenhouse gases are naturally occurring but the
balance in the atmosphere can be altered as a result of their
release due to industry and technology. They are:
- Methane, CH4. This is the principal component of natural
gas and the product of decay, decomposition or
fermentation. Livestock and plants produce significant
amounts of methane.
- Water, H2O. The small amounts of water vapor in the upper
atmosphere (as opposed to clouds which are condensed
water vapor) have a significant effect. The average water
vapor levels in the atmosphere do not appear to alter greatly
as a result o. industry, but local levels can vary.
- Carbon dioxide, CO2 . Combustion releases carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere which can significantly increase the
greenhouse effect. Overall, plants (providing they are
growing) remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
during photosynthesis. This is known as carbon fixation.
- Nitrous oxide, N2O. Livestock and industries (e.g. the
production of Nylon) are major sources of nitrous oxide. Its
effect is significant as it can remain in the upper atmosphere
for long periods.
In addition the following gases also contribute to the
greenhouse effect:
- Ozone, O3 . The ozone layer is an important region of the
atmosphere that absorbs high energy UV photons which
would otherwise be harmful to living organisms. Ozone also
adds to the greenhouse effect.
- Chlorofuorocarbons (CFCs). Used as refrigerants,
propellants and cleaning solvents. They also have the effect
of depleting the ozone layer.
One piece of evidence that links global warming to increased
levels of greenhouse gases comes from ice core data. The ice
core has been drilled in the Russian Antarctic base at Vostok.
Each year’s new snow fall adds another layer to the ice.
Isotopic analysis allows the temperature to be estimated and
air bubbles trapped in the ice cores can be used to measure
the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. The
record provides data from over 400,000 years ago to the
present. The variations of temperature and carbon dioxide are
very closely correlated.
53
Absolute zero

The temperature at which all random motion of molecules stops.

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Absorption spectra

The set of wavelengths of photons absorbed by a substance. It is a colored band with

dark lines.

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Acceleration of free fall

The acceleration due to the pull of the Earth on a body (i.e. due to the gravitation field
of Earth)

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Amplitude

The largest value of the displacement from equilibrium of an oscillation.

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Antinode

A point in a medium with a standing wave where the displacement is momentarily a

maximum.

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Average speed

The ratio of distance travelled to total time taken.

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Average velocity

The ratio of displacement to total time taken.

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Best fit analysis

The process of constructing a curve, or mathematical function, that has the best fit to a
series of data points, possibly subject to constraints.

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Conservation of energy

The principle that energy cannot be destroyed or created but can only be changed from
one form into another.

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Conserved

A quantity that stays the same before and after an interaction.

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Crest

A point on a wave of maximum displacement.

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Displacement

The change in position; for an oscillation, the difference between the position of a
particle and its equilibrium position.

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Distance

The length of the path followed by a particle or object.

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Instantaneous speed

The speed at an instant of time; the rate of change of distance with time.

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Instantaneous velocity

The velocity at an instant of time; the rate of change of displacement with time.

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Linear regression

A linear approach to model the relationship between the dependent variable and the
independent variable.

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Mechanical energy

The sum of the kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy of a body.

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Multiplier

Symbol indicating power of 10 (both positive and negative).

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Node

A point in a medium with a standing wave where the displacement is momentarily a

miminum.

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Order of magnitude

An estimate given as just a power of 10.

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Qualitative

Refers to the process of collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video,
or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, etc.

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Quantitative

Refers to the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data.

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Specific heat capacity

The energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass by one degree Kelvin (or
Celsius).

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Trough

A point on a wave of minimum displacement.

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Wave

A periodic disturbance that carries energy and momentum with no large-scale motion
of the medium.

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Wavefront

Surfaces of constant phase (usually only drawn through crests).

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Wavelength

The length of a full wave; the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs.

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