Module 8

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Biological Molecules
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The ability to elucidate the structure and function of

biological molecules holds great importance in a variety of
domains. This includes prospects to tackle public health
concerns, identification of new drug targets and therapeutic
agents.
Structural biology is a field focused on understanding
biological macromolecules such as proteins and RNAs.
Deciphering the effects of changes to the structure of these
biological macromolecules helps elucidate their function and
the part they play in diseases. This ultimately assists in various
fields including biotechnology, drug discovery and design of
therapeutics.
This module provides variety of activities to help you
understand the Biological Molecules
Also called biological molecule,
any of numerous substances that
are produced by cells and living
Biomolecule organisms. Biomolecules have a
wide range of sizes and
structures and perform a vast
array of functions.
The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids,

and proteins.
The structure of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins and their roles in living organisms
The mole
• Is the unit of measurement for amount of substance in the
International System of Units. A mole of a substance or a
mole of particles is defined as exactly 6.02214076×10²³
particles, which may be atoms, molecules, ions, or
electrons. In short, for particles 1 mol = 6.02214076×10²³
Molar Solution
 Refers to a solution with Molarity=1. A molar
solution is a solution which contains 1 mole or 1 Gram
Molecular Weight of the Solute dissolved in a particular
solvent and then made up to 1000 ml with the same
solvent. Molarity of a solution can be calculated by using
s simple formula.
Bonding
 Is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules
that enables the formation of chemical compounds. In
general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the
Polynucleotide chain of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Portion of polynucleotide chain of sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The inset shows the corresponding pentose sugar and pyrimidine base in atoms.
ribonucleic acid (RNA).

There are four types of bonds or interactions:
 Ionic
 Covalent
 Hydrogen bonds
 Van der Waals interactions
Ionic bond
 Ionic and covalent bonds are strong interactions that require a larger energy
input to break apart.
 When an element donates an electron from its outer shell, as in the sodium atom
example above, a positive ion is formed (Figure 2).
 The element accepting the electron is now negatively charged
 Because positive and negative charges attract, these ions stay together and form
an ionic bond, or a bond between ions.
 The elements bond together with the electron from one element staying
predominantly with the other element.
 When Na+ and Cl– ions combine to produce NaCl, an electron from a sodium
atom stays with the other seven from the chlorine atom, and the sodium and
chloride ions attract each other in a lattice of ions with a net zero charge
Figure 2 In the formation of an ionic compound, metals lose electrons and
nonmetals gain electrons to achieve an octet.
There are two types of covalent bonds:
 Polar
o The electrons shared by the atoms spend more time closer to one nucleus than to the other nucleus. Because of the unequal
distribution of electrons between the different nuclei, a slightly positive (δ+) or slightly negative (δ–) charge develops.
o The covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water are polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend more
time near the oxygen nucleus, giving it a small negative charge, than they spend near the hydrogen nuclei, giving these
molecules a small positive charge.

 Nonpolar
o Form between two atoms of the same element or between different
elements that share the electrons equally.
o For example, an oxygen atom can bond with another oxygen atom to
fill their outer shells. This association is nonpolar because the electrons
will be equally distributed between each oxygen atom.
o Two covalent bonds form between the two oxygen atoms because
oxygen requires two shared electrons to fill its outermost shell.
o Nitrogen atoms will form three covalent bonds (also called triple
covalent) between two atoms of nitrogen because each nitrogen atom
needs three electrons to fill its outermost shell. Another example of a
nonpolar covalent bond is found in the methane (CH4) molecule.

o The carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs
four more to fill it. It gets these four from four hydrogen atoms, each
Figure 3 The water molecule (left) depicts a polar bond with a slightly atom providing one.
positive charge on the hydrogen atoms and a slightly negative charge on the
oxygen. Examples of nonpolar bonds include methane (middle) and oxygen o These elements all share the electrons equally, creating four nonpolar
(right). covalent bonds (Figure 3).
Hydrogen bonds
 Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds that
require considerable energy to break. However, not
all bonds between elements are ionic or covalent
bonds. Weaker bonds can also form. These are
attractions that occur between positive and negative
charges that do not require much energy to break.
Two weak bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen
bonds and van der Waals interactions. These bonds
give rise to the unique properties of water and the
unique structures of DNA and proteins.

 When polar covalent bonds containing a hydrogen
atom form, the hydrogen atom in that bond has a
slightly positive charge. This is because the shared
electron is pulled more strongly toward the other
element and away from the hydrogen nucleus. Because
the hydrogen atom is slightly positive (δ+), it will be
attracted to neighboring negative partial charges (δ–).
When this happens, a weak interaction occurs between
the δ+ charge of the hydrogen atom of one molecule
and the δ– charge of the other molecule. This
interaction is called a hydrogen bond. This type of
bond is common; for example, the liquid nature of
water is caused by the hydrogen bonds between water
molecules (Figure 4). Hydrogen bonds give water the
Figure 4 Hydrogen bonds form between slightly
positive (δ+) and slightly negative (δ–) charges of
unique properties that sustain life. If it were not for
polar covalent molecules, such as water. hydrogen bonding, water would be a gas rather than a
liquid at room temperature.
 Hydrogen bonds can form between different molecules and they do not always have to
include a water molecule. Hydrogen atoms in polar bonds within any molecule can form
bonds with other adjacent molecules. For example, hydrogen bonds hold together two
long strands of DNA to give the DNA molecule its characteristic double-stranded
structure. Hydrogen bonds are also responsible for some of the three-dimensional
structure of proteins.
 Like hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions are weak attractions or interactions
between molecules.
 They occur between polar, covalently bound, atoms in different molecules. Some of
these weak attractions are caused by temporary partial charges formed when electrons
move around a nucleus.
 These weak interactions between molecules are important in biological systems.
Molecule
 A group of atoms bonded together, representing the
smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound
that can take part in a chemical reaction.

 A molecule exists when two or more atoms join
together by forming chemical bonds.
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 When atoms of at least two different elements come
together to form chemical bonds,
these molecules can be called compounds.

 Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of an
ionic compound, or compound formed by ionic
bonds.
Polymerization
 Any process in which relatively small molecules, called monomers,
combine chemically to produce a very large chainlike or network
molecule, called a polymer.
 The monomer molecules may be all alike, or they may represent two,
three, or more different compounds.
 Usually at least 100 monomer molecules must be combined to make a
product that has certain unique physical properties such as elasticity,
high tensile strength, or the ability to form fibers A
that differentiate polymers from substances composed of smaller and
simpler molecules; often, many thousands of monomer units are
incorporated in a single molecule of a polymer. B
 The formation of stable covalent chemical bonds between the monomers
sets polymerization apart from other processes, such as crystallization, in
which large numbers of molecules aggregate under the influence of weak
intermolecular forces. B C

TWO CLASSES OF POLYMERIZATION
 Condensation polymerization D
 Addition polymerization
D E
Condensation polymerization
 Each step of the process is accompanied by the formation of a molecule of
some simple compound, often water.

Addition polymerization
 Monomers react to form a polymer without the formation of by-products. Addition
polymerizations usually are carried out in the presence of catalysts, which in certain
cases exert control over structural details that have important effects on the
properties of the polymer.

Macromolecule

 Is a very large molecule, such as protein, commonly composed of the
polymerization of smaller subunits called monomers. They are typically composed
of thousands of atoms or more. A substance that is composed of macromolecules is
called a polymer
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Condensation Presentation

 Is a chemical process by which 2 molecules are joined together to make a larger,
more complex, molecule, with the loss of water. It is the basis for the synthesis of
all the important biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic
acids) from their simpler sub-units.
Hydrolysis

 Is the opposite of condensation. A large molecule is split into smaller sections by
breaking a bond, adding -H to one section and -OH to the other. The products are
simpler substances. Since it involves the addition of water, this explains why it is
called hydrolysis, meaning splitting by water.
Metabolism

 Is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living state of the cells and the
organism. Metabolism can be conveniently divided into two categories:
 Catabolism
o the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy
o Create large molecules out of small
o Goes from photosynthesis from autotrophs to heterotrophs

 Anabolism - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells
o Break downs large molecules to produce energy
o Goes from cellular respiration in heterotrophs to autotrophs
o Creates energy

Anabolic and Catabolic main metabolic pathways capture and use energy from thousands of reactions. Metabolism is closely
linked to nutrition and the availability of nutrients. Bioenergetics is a term which describes the biochemical or metabolic
pathways by which the cell ultimately obtains energy. Energy formation is one of the vital components of metabolism.

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Cover

The ability to elucidate the structure and function of

The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids,

Your Text Here Your Text Here

Your Text Here Your Text Here

Get a modern PowerPoint Get a modern PowerPoint Get a modern PowerPoint

2016 2018 2020

Your Text Here Your Text Here

Your Text Here Your Text Here

Content Here Your Text Here

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Get a modern PowerPoint Presentation that is beautifully designed. Easy to

$130 $200 $80

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