Unit 1

Physical Functioning in
Elder Adults

M.C. María Monica Favila Fuentes

January – June 2023
Later Adulthood
Charles G. Morris

M.C. María Monica Favila Fuentes

January – June 2023
Introduction
The almost 26 million Americans over 65
constitute the group typically identified as
“the aged”.

This group currently represent over 11

percent of the population, but estimates
are that about one out of every five
Americans- an estimated 50 millions
people – will be over 65 by the year 2030
(Table 10-5).
 Introduction
The increases is due mainly
to new medical discoveries
and improved health care. In
1900, the average life
expectancy was 47 years,
and only 4 percent of the
population was 65 and older.

By 1979, the average life

expectancy has increased to
73 years. More and more
people have and will continue
to have an opportunity to live
longer lives (Table 10-6).
 Introduction
Because of the increased number
of older Adults in American
society, increased attention has
been drawn to their needs.
The political strength of older
people is growing: Almost 90% of
older adults are registered to vote
and two-thirds vote regularly (a
greater percentage than in any
other age group), and older
people are organizing themselves
for political action and influence
(Butler & Lewis 1982).
As a result of advocacy efforts,
the first White House Conference
on Aging was held 1981, followed
by the United Nations World
Assembly on Aging in 1982.
Predating these major events and contributing to their
occurrence was the addition of the National Institute
on Aging to the existing ten National Institutes of
Health, as well as the founding of the American
Association for Geriatric Psychiatry in 1978.
Many colleges and universities have also introduced
courses pertaining to later adulthood into their
curricula, and some 300 institutions of higher
education now offer at least one course in
gerontology.
As a result of these developments, knowledge about
the aging process and the challenges of late
adulthood has increased rapidly. And all the
researches' points in one direction: late adulthood is
welcomed by those who learn to manage and use it
to the fullest.
 Introduction
Andrés Segovia gave acclaimed Concerts on
the classical guitar until his death in 1987 at the
age of 93; Bob Hope continues to entertain and
golf his way around the world in his 80s; Claud
Pepper has served in Congress for almost 50
years; Agatha Christie wrote mysteries after
age 85. All of them are well-known examples of
those remaining active and making major
contributions after age 85.
These famous people simply illustrate the more
general point that most older people remain
active and productive when they are free from
disease and serious economic hardship.
Many carry on those activities that they enjoyed
in their younger years, suggesting that a full
early life result in accentuation of early and
middle-life characteristic rather than alteration
of them.
Nonetheless, just a change and
development characterized the early
years of life, the later years also require
that the individual grow, develop, and
change.
Physical abilities are somewhat
diminished, but the capacity to control
the environment still exists. Loved ones
have been lost, but the need to love still
exists. Dependence upon others has
increased, but independence is still
valued.
The task is then to clarify, deepen, and
accept one´s own life and to use one´s
experiences to manage personal
change. (Schnell & Hall, 1979)
Professional and
Occupational Cycle
Diane E. Papalia y Sally Wendkos Olds.
 Work and Adult Development
It is surprising that Erikson ignored the role
of work in adulthood, after having stressed
the importance of competence in childhood
and the need for professional preparation
of adolescents in their search for identity.
However, it has not been the only one, only
in the last few years of work has it received
the attention it deserves, in view of its
fundamental importance in the lives of
many people. "What's your job?" It is
usually the first question that a stranger
asks us.
What we do to get money usually takes up
at least half of our daily working hours. And
what we do and how often we do it plays a
major role in our self-esteem.
Perhaps the recent increase in interest in work (as
reflected in conclusions to be discussed later)
parallels the changes that have taken place in
American society.
A sample of these changes is presented in the 1981
research that shows the conclusions of the studies
carried out in all the States of the Union on more
than 2,000 adults each, which were carried out in
1957 and in 1976, almost 20 years old. difference
(Veroff, Douvan & Kulka, 1981).
What happened in the world of work during this
generation?
Women have entered it in increasing numbers, so
that in 1969 there were more mothers with school-
age children working outside the home than staying
at home. Diane E. Papañia y Saly Wendkos Olds
Book: Psychology.

Meanwhile, men seem more concerned about
their role in the family seat, more young people
have entered the labor market, workers think
more about leisure and retirement and those
who were born in the generation of the
demographic explosion (those born in the last
years of the decade of the 40) have higher
educational levels.
Some of these important changes have
undoubtedly influenced the different attitudes
that people in the 1970s showed towards their
work in relation to those of the 1950s.
About 12 to 13 percent of people of both sexes
saw their work as a reason for happiness in
both 1957 and 1976.
From 1976 people considered their work as a
source of concern and more women saw it as a
cause of unhappiness.
Work and Adult Development
Surprisingly, these researchers found that
Americans do not mention their work as important
when defining themselves.
Furthermore, married workers with children value
their jobs below their role as husband and father,
reaffirming the emphasis given by Erikson to the
importance of generativity in our lives.
They consider their work based on the main
values ​of the life stage in which they are. For
example, older men who value self-actualization
highly regard work as a means of fulfillment more
important than marriage, but less than
parenthood.
Women seem to value the non-economic benefits
of their jobs (contact with people and interest)
more than men and often believe that they would
continue working even if they did not need money.
 Work and Adult Development
This may reflect the contrast between social
Work and
isolation and low regard for housework that many
women and a few men have experienced.
Retirement
For example, at age 79, Diane's father was still
working full time in his legal practice.
Regardless, although American's value family
matters over work, this is still an important When Sally's father, a furniture salesman, was
consideration, especially for young single women. 73 years old, he lost his job due to the death of
his employer; He received three job offers,
The most far-reaching changes in relation to work
accepted one and worked until the day he
in the last 20 or 30 years have affected women, a
died, at the age of 76.
fact confirmed by other researchers
More than 60 studies of job performance have
An intensive study of approximately 300 Boston
produced findings according to which older
women ages 30-55 has concluded that there is an
workers have greater commitment to their work
important relationship between paid work and
in younger ones, show less change and more
feelings of power and pride in women, especially
job satisfaction (Rosen and Jedee, 1988).
those in highly skilled positions. (Baruch, Barnett
and Rivers, 1983).

Work has a great importance in the feeling of well-

being in women. Diane E. Papañia y Saly Wendkos Olds
Book: Human Development.
 Perhaps because older people who do paid
productive work represent only 3% of the
workforce (Schick, 1986), they are less visible
than the stereotypical and carefree retired
gentlemen who play golf.
Furthermore, after the past 40 years the
Work and Retirement
proportion of elderly people seeking gulp has
dropped dramatically.
In 1990, only about 16% of men 65 and older
were in the workforce, compared with nearly
46% in 1950 (U.S. Department of Labor,
1980, 1987; U.S. Bureau of the Census
1992c).
The main factor is that more men are now
retiring early and fewer are self-employed.
Most of the research on work and retirement
in late adulthood has focused on older men,
but with the growing role of work in women's
The production of working older women (65
years and older) has also declined, but not so
severely: 10% in 1950 is close to 9% in 1990.
This may reflect the fact that fewer women in
this age group age worked earlier in life and
those who did tended to retire as early as
possible because the types of work they could do
were limited (AARP, 1986; Bird, 1987; US Bureau
of the Census, 1992b).
Retirement does not necessarily mean
suspending paid work. Many healthy retirees
work part-time, representing slightly more than
half of older workers.
Although there is likely to be someone over 65 in
almost all occupations, about 54% of older
workers are white-collar workers and about 25%
are self-employed (AARP, 1986; Bird 1987;
Schick , 1986; US Bureau of the Census, 1992c).
 At one time almost all employers required their workers
to retire at 65 years of age. Then the corresponding
laws were retaken, first raising the retirement age to 70
years, and then eliminating the mandatory retirement Many private pension systems
age, except for a few professions, such as airline encourage early retirement by
pilots. Now, while employers cannot force a worker to penalizing workers who are past
retire, many exert more or less subtle pressure on their their 60s, and social security
Work and Retirement

older employees. policies limit the income a worker

can earn.
Most people leave their job at the retirement age
assigned by their employers, or earlier. The economic Changes in tax laws, pension
condition affects the retirement age: workers who still systems, and company policies
earn high wages are more likely to work longer, and (such as letting employees swallow
workers who generally have low wages retire as soon part-time with reduced pay) could
as they can afford it. encourage older workers to stay in
their jobs (Ruhm, 1989).
Thanks to the benefits of social security (the main
source of income for the elderly) and private pension
systems, many workers are able to retire and live
relatively comfortably.
How do people feel about
retirement?
A favorite adage of Sally's father, "Better to be After a while, however, they may start to feel
rich and healthy than poor and sick," sums up
how many feel about retirement.
No one is surprised that retired people who
have no money worries and who feel good are
happier in retirement than those who miss
their income and are comfortable enjoying
their leisure (Barfield and Morgan, 1974, 1978;
Aldwin, Levenson and Workman-Daniels,
1991).
The use of time is also important. Many
recently retired individuals enjoyed the first
long periods of leisure that they did not have
from childhood.
Take pleasure in spending time with family
and friends and exploring new interests.
Work and Retirement
bored, restless, and useless. The most satisfied
retirees tend to be physically fit individuals who
use their skills in paid or voluntary part-time jobs
(Schick, 1986).
Retirement has little effect on physical health
(Herzog, House Morgan, 1991), but it sometimes
affects mental health (Bossè, Aldwin, Levenson
& Ekerdt, 1987).
Among 1,513 older men screened in the Boston
Veterans Administration's Normative Aging Study
(a cross-sectional study), retirees were more
likely than workers to report depression,
obsessive-compulsive behavior, and physical
symptoms that had no organic cause.
Those who withdrew early (before age 62) or late
(after age 65) reported the most symptoms.
Of course, poor mental health could have
been the reason some of these men
dropped out.
But it is also possible that the moment of
retirement intervened. Workers who are
pressured to suspend their work before
they want to, may not have satisfactory
alternatives, or they may feel out of the
environment of their co-workers.
Workers who postponed retirement as
long as possible because they enjoyed
their work can now feel their loss acutely;
those who continue working can do so
because they want to feel valued and
needed.
Work and Retirement
How do people feel about retirement?
On the other hand, the morale and
life satisfaction of some people
remain stable through the years of
work and retirement, and some
retirees have higher morale than
some workers (ML Cassidy, 1983;
Palmore, Fillenbau and George,
1984).
Once again it is concluded that it is
not possible to describe any single
effect of such a complex change in
people's lives.

The best way to face
retirement
Retirement as a major life transition raises the
question: What can be done to help more
people achieve it in a rewarding way?
Two key elements are preparation before
retirement and good use of time during
retirement.
a) Forward planning.
Ideally, retirement planning should begin
before middle adulthood. It includes
structuring life to make it enjoyable and
productive, preventing financial needs,
anticipating emotional or physical problems,
and analyzing how retirement may affect your
spouse.
Help can come from early retirement courses,
self-help books, and company-sponsored
programs.
Work and Retirement
b) Use leisure time well.
Some retired people enjoy being able to sleep in, go
fishing, or watch a movie in the afternoon.
But many get more gratification for using the fruits of
their expertise in a more structured "work-like" way,
and programs have gone so far as to exploit this
valuable resource.
Lifelong Learning: Education in Late
Adulthood.
Research has found that the phrase "use it or lose it" applies
to both intellectual capacity and physical functioning.
Continuing mental activity throughout life helps to maintain
high performance, if this activity involves reading, talking,
solving crossword puzzles, playing cards or chess or other
board games, or going back to school, as they do more and
more mature adults.
Reactions to
Physical Chanches.
 Reactions to Physical Chanches.

During later adulthood, the hair grays or turns white and becomes spare.
The skin becomes increasingly wrinkled. Chest are no longer as full or as
broad. Bones becomes spongy and fragile and more easily broken. Muscles
can atrophy and joints can stiffen.

The heart does not react as quickly during exercise or exposure to stress,
and once stimulated it takes longer to return to normal rates of beating.
Circulation slows, blood pressure rises, and because the lungs hold less
oxygen, the older adult has less energy for activity and fewer reserves to
deal with stress. Vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell are less sensitive
than they once were. (LaRue & Jarvik.1982).
 Reactions to Physical Chanches.

These physical changes are inevitable during later adulthood, but none of
them is crippling or incapacitating. While they call for some adjustment and
change in life-style.

It is quite possible to lead an active and full life despite the changes. This
fact bring us to a very important point: the most important fact is not what
biological changes occur in later life, but rather how the individual responds
to those changes. We all know people who “look older than their years” and
others who are “young at Heart”.

An there is a good deal of truth in the saying “You are only as old as you
feel”. These observations underscore the fact that chronological age is not a
very good indicator of aging.
 Reactions to Physical Chanches.

Research supports these impressions, and psychologists are now beginning

to use functional, adaptational, or psychological age as a better predictor of
a person´s response to life´s demands. For example: proper exercise also
seems to improve mental functioning. Even rapid walking for a thirty-minute
period three to four times a week can provide considerable rejuvenation.

With proper exercise, men and women of 60 and 70 can become as fit and
energetic as those twenty to thirty years younger.

Exercise can forestall some of the physical changes that occur in later life, it
is also important for older adults to learn effective ways to conserve strength
and use resources more effectively.
 Reactions to Physical Chanches.

Body monitoring, or the need to look after those bodily processes that
formerly took care of themselves, demands more time. For example:
significant hearing loss occurs in about 30%of older people.

Because there are unable to hear conversations.

Some older adults may withdraw from situations where communication

takes place in order to avoid embarrassment from frequent
misunderstandings.

They can even become depressed, as if it were somehow their own fault for
not hearing well (Hull, 1982).
 Reactions to Physical Chanches.

In contrast, other people will closely monitor their ability to hear, seek
devices that will at least partially offset the hearing loss, pay closer attention
to lip movements, an encourage others to sit closer to them and speak a bit
louder so that they can understand what is being said.

Visual problems restrict mobility and leisure time activity and increase
feelings of vulnerability to danger and crime. But there, too, there are great
individual differences in ability to adapt. Some people will become frustrated
at the loss of some visual ability and resign themselves to a less-fulfilling life.
Others will avail themselves of all available technology, make some
appropriate adjustments in their lives, and go on living a full and satisfying
life.
 What may happened
when people became senile?

First of all, senility is by no means a
natural or inevitable result of aging. Very
few people actually become senile.
Second, senility is brought on by
disease, not the simple passage of time
(Reisber, 1983).
Two-thirds of all cases of senility, for
example, are caused by Alzheimer´s
disease, an organic brain disorder.
Senility is thus no more “natural” than a
brain tumor or any other disease
affecting the nervous system.
Third, many behaviors that we may be
quick to label as sings of senility are
actually the result of older people´s
exclusion from an active role in society.
What may happend when people became senil?
If they seem unable to comprehend
currents events, for example. It is
usually because they have given up
reading the newspaper, since they have
no one to discuss the news with or feel
that their opinions don´t matter to
anyone anymore.
The point to remember is that there is
naturally some physical decline in later
adulthood, and even in the best of
worlds, there will continue to be some
decline. But what is often attributed to
“aging” is in many cases really a result
of disease or of being rendered
“useless” by a society that emphasizes
youth and vigor.

What may happend when people became senil?
To the extent that diseases such as
Azheimer´s can be brought under
control, to the extent that adults are
careful to exercise and eat proper
foods, and to the extent that attitudes
toward the aged become more
positive, the research evidence
suggest that for the vast majority of
people, the physical decline in later
adulthood ca be both slow and
gentle, requiring only modest
adjustments and changes in life-
style.
Social, Interpersonal,
and Personality
Development.
Social Relationships.
The phenomenon of aging takes place in a
social context. While social and personal
constrains during the later years may limit or
alter social behavior, the later years present
many new opportunities and gratifying social
experiences for the elderly (Kahana, 1982).
Social behavior in the later years, just as in
youth, is influenced by two important factors:
the personal characteristics of the individual
and the social network and support available.
Fourth-fifths of those over 65 have living
children; among this group, 94% are
grandparents.
 Social Relationships.

Grand parenting can often be more rewarding than parenting. Relieved from
the major responsibilities of child care and its accompanying doubts and
anxieties, grandparents may actually enjoy their grandchildren more than
they did their own children.

Grand-parents provide a useful function in society, giving love and guidance

to children without asking much in return.

Wisdom imparted to youth a process which benefits both the giver and the
receiver. Many human beings feel a need to share the knowledge that they
have gained over the years and to consul or guide youngers persons a
process often referred to as “eldering”. Grandparenting provides one way to
meet these needs and to remain connected with younger generations.
 Social Relationships.

In addition, friendships are especially important in late adulthood

(Baldassare, Rosenfield, & Rook, 1984; Larsen, Mannell, & Zuzark, 1986).

While relationships with family members often comes to emphasize

dependency and caretaking functions, friends provided enjoyment and
companionship characterized by openness and reciprocity.

Having a confident is especially important.

Those whose self worth is bolstered by others take better care of

themselves and have better health (Cutrona, Russel, & Rose, 1986).

Consequently, they can face the normal challenges of late adulthood with
less disruption.
 Social, Interpersonal, and Personality Development.

Cognitive Development

For a number of years, comparison of the intellectual performance of

younger and older adults suggested that cognitive functioning declined in
later adulthood (Datan, Rodeheaver, & Hughes, 1987).

However, more recent research indicates that those whose behavior and
attitudes remain flexible, who are involved in a broad spectrum of
intellectually stimulating activities, and who practice their problem solving
skills can maintain a high level of functioning in old age (Denney, 1982;
Schaie, 1984).
 Cognitive Development.

Memory, comprehension, and even some fine motor skills can remain well-
developed. Although performance on artificial laboratory, problem-solving
tasks does tend to decline during adulthood, the ability to solve practical,
real-life problems actually increases. In addition, specialized training can
greatly enhance cognitive performance in later adulthood (Willis, 1985; Willis
& Schaie, 1986).

The elderly also are more skilled at solving problems that require an
appreciation of the social context in which the problem occurs.

For example: one study of 150 members of the 1971-74 Vermont legislature
reported that younger legislators produced twice as many bills as older
ones, but the likelihood of n older legislator´s bill being passed was twice
that of a younger legislator´s bill.
 Cognitive Development.

On closer examination, the researched discovered that the younger

politicians worked on a trial-and-error basis, proposing many bills in hopes
that at least a few would survive.

In contrast, the older politicians displayed grater caution and deliberation

and tended to produce bills that reflected a more mature grasp of the
problems being addressed (Fengler,1976).

In later adulthood there is also often an increase in introspection and

consequent reorganization of value system.

These changes can lead to renewed interest in philosophical and religious

pursuits.
 Cognitive Development.

In Japan, many old men turn to writing poetry (Butler & Lewis, 1983).

Perhaps these changes also account in part for the extraordinary creative
achievements late in life by Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Rembrandt, Rodin,
Grandma Moses, Cervantes, Voltaire, Goethe, Tolstoi, and Picasso—all of
whom continued to be extraordinarily productive in later life.
Sensory Skills in Old
Age
Diane E. Papalia and Sally Wendkos Olds
 Sensory Skills in Old Age.

With age, the acuity of the sense's declines, but there are
also great individual differences in this. People over the age
of 65 are prone to vision problems in the dark, which often
prevents them from driving at night.

Half of the legally blind in our country are over 65 years old,
although, fortunately, with the development of perfected
glasses, contact lenses and new surgical techniques to
eliminate cataracts, many vision losses are partially
corrected.
Hearing problems are more common than vision problems;
Older people have special difficulties to follow a conversation
when noise from television, radio, outside or other people talk
at the same time interferes.
 Sensory Skills in Old Age.

Here again, a relationship between physical and emotional

development is discovered when it is found that hearing loss can
contribute to a feeling of isolation and loneliness.

Another relationship between physical limitations and personality

problems has been underlined by experiments that have found
out how some college students with hypnotically induced partial
deafness began to have paranoid feelings (Zimbardo, Amdersem
or Labat. 1981).

People who do not admit the existence of hearing problems can

develop disturbed personalities and bear these problems poorly
if they come to imagine that they are being talked about them or
deliberately excluding them from conversations.
 Sensory Skills in Old Age.

Older people often complain that their food doesn't taste as good as it used to.
This appears to be due to a loss of sensation in taste and smell.

The vestibular sense, which helps maintain posture and balance, often
deteriorates in old age, causing dizziness and falls.

Psychomotor skills.

The elderly can do almost the same things they did when they
were younger, but they do them more slowly. Their general
slowness affects both the quality of the responses and the time,
since they take longer to adapt to the environment and make
decisions.
Psychomotor skills.
This slowdown has many implications. Lower
scores on IQ tests, as many of these results are
time-limited. On a more practical level, it affects
their driving skills and ultimately their ability to
be independent.
Older people who have exercised into maturity
show little loss in speed, vitality, and strength
and in several basic functions, such as
circulation and respiration (Bromely, 1974).
Many of the effects that we associate with aging
are due more to the lack of use of our body and
its adaptation to not doing physical exercises
than to the passage of age.
 Why does our body age.

Researchers do not yet have a definitive answer to this question.

We know that aging is a complex process, influenced by hereditary factors, by

nutrition, by diseases and by the environment.

1. What happens to the cells of our body?

2. What is the difference between old cells and young cells?

3. What happens to make them different?

Homework!!!!

You should bring answered the questions for the next class.
 Why does our body age.

The theories that have tried to answer these questions fall into two categories:

a) Theory of programming.

Since each species has its own pattern of aging and its own life expectancy,
aging must in some way build part of the very fabric of each organism.

Leonard Hayflick (1974), who studied the cells of a large number of different
animals, found that normal cells divided only a limited number of times, on the
contrary human cells divided themselves about 50 times.

He argues that this limitation controls the life process, which for humans appears
to be limited to 110 years. Possibly we are born with genes that are found to be
in danger later in life causing deterioration.

A deterioration of this type can be the one that occurs in our body system, which
seems to be "confused" in old age, causing it to attack the body itself.
 Why does our body age.

Second and Third category:

b) Theory of wear and tear.

Through the comparison of our bodies with machines whose parts eventually
deteriorate due to continuous use, this theory proposes that internal and external
stress lead to the accumulation of harmful derivatives in our system, such as
chemical derivatives.

As cells age, they are less able to repair or replace damaged components, and
therefore die. We know, for example, that the cells of the heart and brain can not
be replace themselves even at an early age. When they are injured, they die.

The same process seems to develop in the rest of the cells in later life.
Sexuality in
later life
Diane E. Papalia and
Sally Wendkos Olds
 Sexuality in Later life

Underlying lifestyles need to express sexuality. When people turn 20s, they must
achieve independence, competence, responsibility and equality in relation to
sexuality.

Over the next several years, most people make decisions about which lifestyle to
choose whether to engage in a formal sexual relationship, recreational, or
monogamous (and whether they express their sexuality in a heterosexual,
homosexual, or bisexual relationship). Only 3% of adults over 18 have not had
sexual intercourse. It is estimated that between 91 and 93% are heterosexual
and 5 or 6% are homosexual or bisexual (T. W. Smith, 1991).

Many of the issues young adults face are related to the sexual aspect: the
decision to marry, have a child, engage in extramarital sexual adventures, which
are presented during the "despair of the seventh year" and changes in sexual
patterns. after the divorce.
 Sexuality in Later life.

Sexual behaviour.
Another misconception about the aged is that they are not sexual. In large part,
this misconception reflects our attitudes about the elderly.

To the extent that we see the aged as physically less attractive, we may find it
difficult to believe that they ( or, worse yet, our parents) are sexually active
(Ronch, 1982) .

And it is true that older people respond more slowly and are less active sexually,
but the vast majority of older adults are orgasmic and can enjoy sex.

Seventy percent of 70-yerar-old males are sexually active if they are married
(Clanan, 1966), and some men and women become even more sexually active
as they age (Pfeiffer, 1977).

Psychology an Introduction. Sixth Edition.

Charles G Morris
 Sexuality in Later life.

Sexual behaviour.
Nonetheless, several factors work against sexual satisfaction in old age.

First, some older adults accept the myth that they should be disinterested in sex,
and as a result they attempt to deny their sexual urges in order to avoid
disapproval.

Second, older women, most to whom are widows, have no available patterns and
so tend to lose some interest in sex.

Poor health is another factor that may curb sexual activity, grew up in the early
part of this century, when attitudes toward sexual behavior were quite different
form what they are today. Thus, their sexual attitudes and behaviors are likely to
reflect that generational difference at leas as much as they reflect the normal
process of growing older.