Chemical Bonding - Final - E

CHEMICAL
BONDING
CHEMICAL
BONDING
CHEMICAL CHEMICAL BONDING
BONDING A force that acts between two or more atoms to hold them together as a
stable molecule.
Cause of Chemical Combination:-
(A) Tendency to acquire state of minimum potential energy:
(a) When two atoms approaches to each other, nucleus of one atom
attracts electrons of another atom.
(b) Nucleus and electrons of both atoms repels each other.
(c) If net force is attraction ,then total energy of
system(molecule)decreases and a chemical bond is formed.
(d) Energy released in bond formation is known as Bond Energy,
that means bond formation is exothermic.
Strength of chemical bond Bond Energy

BONDING
Energy V/s Internuclear distance Curve:-
BONDING
Classification of Bonds (on the basis of bond energy)
Chemical Bonds
Strong Bond Weak Bond

(Inter atomic) (Inter Molecular)
(C)
(A) Ionic (B) Covalent (D) Metallic
Co-ordinate
bond bond bond (E) (F)
bond
Hydrogen Vander
bond waal's bond
BONDING (B) Tendency to complete octet (Lewis Octet Rule) :-
(a) Every atom has a tendency to complete its octet and acquire nearest
inert gas configuration (ns2np6).
(b) Atoms lose ,gain or share electrons to complete octet.
(c) H & Li completes its duplet (ns2).
Atoms Complete their octet:-

(i) By losing or gaining of electrons (complete transfer of electrons):- Ionic
bond is formed
+
Na 
 Na +
Cl 
 Cl –
Na 
 Cl¯
2,8,1 2,8 2,8,7 2,8,8 2,8 ionic bond 2,8,8
BONDING (ii) By equal contribution(sharing) of electrons:- Covalent bond is formed.
(iii) By unequal contribution(sharing) of electrons:- Coordinate bond is formed.

CHEMICAL EXCEPTION OF OCTET RULE
BONDING
(a) Electron deficient molecules or hypovalent :-
(i) Molecules in which central atom has less than 8 electrons in its
valence shell.
(ii) Act as a Lewis acid(electron pair acceptor)
E.g.
Cl—Be —Cl (Be has 4 electrons in its valence shell)
Other example :-
AlCl3, BF3, BBr3, SnCl2 etc.
BONDING
(b) Electron rich molecules or hypervalent :-
(i) Molecules in which central atoms has more than 8 electrons in its valence
shell.
(ii) Elements of third period and onwards form such type of molecules due to
presence of vacant d orbitals.
Cl
E.g. (P has 10 electrons

Cl P Cl
in its valence shell)
Cl Cl
Other examples :- SF6 ,IF7, XeF2 etc.
BONDING
(c) Odd electron molecules :-
(i) Molecules in which central atom has odd number of electrons in valence
shell.
(ii) Due to presence of unpaired electron they are paramagnetic in nature.
E.g. NO,NO2 ,ClO2,ClO3 etc.
(d) Cation having pseudo inert gas configuration :-

Cations which has 18 electrons in outermost shell.
E.g. Zn+2, Cd+2, Hg+2, Cu+, Ag+, Au+ etc.
Electronic Configuration of Zn+2 :- 1s2 2s2 2p6,3s2 3p6 3d10
18 e¯
CHEMICAL VALENCY
BONDING (i) It is defined as combining capacity or bond formation capacity of an
element.
(ii) Valence shell electrons of an element decide its valency.
Difference between outermost shell and valence shell of an element :-

Outermost shell:- Shell which has maximum value of principle quantum
number(n)
Valence shell :- Shell whose electrons participate in bond formation.
(i) For s and p block element:- outermost shell and valence shell is same.
For e.g. (a) 11Na :- 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s1
Outermost shell as well as Valence shell :-3s1
(b) 15P :- 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p5
Outermost shell as well Valence shell :- 3s2 3p5
CHEMICAL VALENCY
BONDING
(ii) for d and f block element:- outermost shell and valence shell is not same.
For e.g. (a) 25Mn :- 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6,4s2 3d5
Outermost shell :- 4s2
Valence shell :- 4s2 3d5
(b) 58Ce :- 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6, 4s2 3d10 4p6,5s2 4d10
5p6, 6s2 5d1 4f1
Outermost shell :- 6s2
Valence shell :- 6s2 5d1 4f1
CHEMICAL QUESTION
BONDING
Q. Which of the following is not an exception of octet rule ?
(1) BF3
(2) SiCl4
(3) SnCl2
(4) ClO2
Ans. (2)
CHEMICAL QUESTION
BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING
Q. Which of the following oxide of nitrogen is an odd electron molecule ?
(1) NO2
(2) N2O4
(3) N2O3
(4) N2O5
Ans. (1)
CHEMICAL COVALENT BOND
BONDING
It is formed by equal contribution (sharing) of unpaired electrons present in
the valence shell of two atoms.
H2 molecule O2 molecule N2 molecule

CHEMICAL COVALENCY
BONDING Number of covalent bonds formed by an atom in a covalent molecule.
It is equal to number of unpaired electrons present in the valence shell
either in ground state or in any excited state.
For 2nd period elements: -
* 6 C :- (Covalency is 2) E.g. :CF2,CO etc.

(G.S.) 2s 2p
(Ist E.S.) (Covalency is 4) E.g. :CH4,CO2 etc.

2s 2p
CHEMICAL COVALENCY
BONDING
* 7 N :- (Covalency is 3) E.g. :NH3,NCl3 etc.
(G.S.) 2s 2p
For nitrogen excited state is not possible due to absence of vacant orbital
that's why NCl5 does not exist.
* 8 O :- (Covalency is 2) E.g. :H2O,OF2 etc.

(G.S.) 2s 2p
For oxygen excited state is not possible due to absence of vacant orbital
that's why, OF4, OF6 does not exist.
Maximum covalency for 2nd period elements is 4

CHEMICAL COVALENCY
BONDING
For 3rd period and onwards elements :-
Elements of 3rd period and onwards show variable covalency due to presence
of vacant d orbitals in their valence shell.
15 P :- (Covalency is 3) E.g. PCl3,PF3 etc.

(G.S.)
3s 3p 3d
(Ist E.S.) (Covalency is 5) E.g. PCl5,PF5 etc.

3s 3p 3d
So variable covalency of P is 3,5.

CHEMICAL COVALENCY
BONDING
16 S :- (Covalency is 2) E.g. SF2,H2S etc.
3s (G.S.) 3p 3d
(IstE.S.) (Covalency is 4) E.g. SF4,SO2 etc.

3s 3p 3d
(2nd E.S.) (Covalency is 6) E.g. SF6,SO3 etc.

3s 3p 3d
So variable covalency of S is 2,4,6.

CHEMICAL COVALENCY
BONDING
X(Cl/Br/I) :- (Covalency is 1) E.g. ICl,ClF etc.
(G.S.)ns np nd
(Ist E.S.) :- (Covalency is 3) E.g. ClF3, BrF3 etc.

ns np nd
(2nd E.S.) :- (Covalency is 5) E.g. BrF5, IF5 etc.

ns np nd
(3rd E.S.) :- (Covalency is 7) E.g. IF7 etc.

ns np nd
So variable covalency of Halogens is 1,3,5,7.

CHEMICAL COVALENCY
BONDING
Xe :-
(G.S.) 5s 5p 5d
(Ist E.S.) :- (Covalency is 2) E.g. XeF2 etc.
5s 5p 5d
(2nd E.S.) :- (Covalency is 4) E.g. XeF4 etc.
5s 5p 5d
(3rd E.S.) :- (Covalency is 6) E.g. XeF6 etc.
5s 5p 5d
(3rdE.S.) :- (Covalency is 8) E.g. XeO4 etc.
5s 5p 5d
So variable covalency of Xe is 2,4,6,8.

CHEMICAL VALENCE BOND THEORY (VBT)
BONDING
Overlapping Concept :
• When 2 atoms are bonded through covalent bond then their Half filled
atomic orbitals get combined.
• Half filled orbitals must have electrons of opposite spin.
• Overlapping of orbitals will be along internuclear axis of bonded atoms.
Types of overlapping :
(i) Head on / co-axial overlapping
(ii) Side wise / Collateral overlapping
BONDING
(i) Head on / co-axial overlapping :
• Atomic orbitals overlap head to head along the internuclear axis.
• Sigma (s) bond is formed.
Let z-axis is internuclear axis.
(A) s—s overlapping :-
s s s–s
BONDING
(B) s—p overlapping :-
(C) p—p overlapping :-

BONDING
(ii) Sidewise overlapping :
• Atomic orbitals overlap side by side along the internuclear axis.
• Pi(p)bond is formed.
(A) p—p overlapping (pp – pp bond)

Let z axis is Internuclear axis.
E.g. N2 Þ NºN
BONDING
(B) p—d overlapping (pp – dp bond)
CHEMICAL VALENCY
VALENCE BOND THEORY (VBT)
BONDING (C) d—d overlapping (dp – dp bond) :-
BONDING
Comparison between s and p bond
s-bond s-bond
1. Formed by axial overlapping. 1. Formed by side by side overlapping.
2. Involves s-s, s-p, p-p orbitals. 2. Involves p-p, p-d & d-d orbital.
3. Extent of overlapping is more so 3. Extent of overlapping is less so weaker
stronger
4. Free rotation around s bond is possible 4. Free rotation around p bond is possible
Strength of Covalent Bond µ extent of overlapping

CHEMICAL QUESTION
BONDING
Q. Predict the nature of bond in following combinations.
Orbitals Internuclear axis Bond
s + px z-axis ................
px + px x-axis ................
py + p y y-axis ................
pz + p z z-axis ................
px + px y or z-axis ................
py + p y x or z axis ................
pz + p z x or y axis ................
CHEMICAL QUESTION
BONDING
Q. Number of s and p bonds present in CH3—CH =CH—CºCH are :-
(1) 10s, 3p
(2) 10s, 2p
(3) 9s, 2p
(4) 8s, 3p
Ans. (1)
CHEMICAL QUESTION
BONDING
Q. p-p overlapping will be observed in the molecules of :-
(A) Hydrogen
(B) Hydrogen bromide
(C) Hydrogen chloride
(D) Chlorine
Ans. (D)
BONDING
Factors affecting overlapping / Bond strength :-
(i) Size of overlapping orbital (n is different) :-
1
Bond strength 
Size of overlapping orbital
E.g. (a) C — C > Si — Si > Ge — Ge > Sn — Sn

2p 2p 3p 3p 4p 4p 5p 5p
(b) H — F > H — Cl > H — Br > H — I

1s 2p 1s 3p 1s 4p 1s 5p
BONDING
(ii) lone pair – lone pair repulsion :-
1
Bond strength 
lp – lp repulsion
Order of Bond dissociation energy in Halogen molecules Þ Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2
BONDING
(iii) Directional nature of orbitals : (n is same)
Bond strength µ directional nature
E.g.:- 2s – 2s < 2s – 2p < 2p – 2p

(non-directional) (directional)
bond strength ↑
E.g.:- (2p-3d)p > (2p-3p)p

bond strength ↓
CHEMICAL QUESTION
BONDING
Q. At room temperature N2 exist but P2 does not exist, why ?
Ans. Strong p bond is formed between 2nd period elements.
Remember :-
Same explanation for existence of O2 and non existence of S2 at room
temperature.
CHEMICAL QUESTION
BONDING
Q. Explain why CO2 is a gas at room temperature while SiO2 is solid at
room temperature.
Ans.
BONDING
Need for hybridisation :-
If C atom uses pure orbitals for bond formation in CH4 molecule –
H=
1s 1s 1s 1s
CHEMICAL HYBRIDISATION
• 1 C–H bond by 1s–2s overlapping
• 3 C–H bond by 1s–2p
overlapping
Qextent
(1s–2sof< overlapping
1s–2p)
\ Three C–H bond (1s–2p) are stronger than one C–H bond (1s–2s)
• Three C–H bond by (1s–2p) are at 90° and direction of one C–H bond
(1s–2s) is uncertain.
• But fact is that shape of CH4 is tetrahedral and all C–H bond lengths are
equal.
BONDING Postulates of Hybridisation :-
• Mixing of atomic orbitals having different shape and approximate equal
energy.
• Redistribution of energy to form new orbitals of same shape & same
energy.
• These new orbitals are called hybrid orbitals and the phenomenon is
called hybridisation.
• Hybridisation is the mixing of orbitals and not of electrons. Therefore in
hybridisation full filled, half filled and empty orbitals may participate.
• Number of the hybrid orbitals formed is always be equal to number of
atomic orbital which have participate in the process of hybridisation.
• After hybridization hybrid orbitals arrange themselves and arrangement
of hybrid orbitals is known as electronic geometry of molecule.
BONDING
BONDING
• C–H bond is formed by sp3– s overlapping

• Total bond angles of 109°28' = 6
• All C–H bonds are identical
BONDING No.of hybrid
Hybridisation Electronic Geometry of molecule
orbitals
1 sp (s+px) linear
2 sp2(s+px+py) Trigonal planer
3 sp3(s+px+py+pz) Tetrahedral
4 Trigonal bipyramidal
sp3d(s+px+py+pz+dz2) (lp is placed at
Equatorial Positions)
BONDING Square
bipyramidal/
sp3d2(s+px+py+pz+dz2+dx2-y2) Octahedral
5 (lp is placed
anywhere)
Pentagonal
sp d (s+px+py+pz+dz +d
3 3 2
+dxy)
2 2
x -y Bipyramidal
6
(1 lp ® at equatorial position)
(2 lp ® at axial positions)
Prediction of Hybridisation state:-
Number of Hybrid Orbitals = Number of s bonds + Number of lone pair on

central atom
BONDING E.g.:- (i) XeF4 : -  Lone pairs= 2
 No.of σ = 4 
    
6(sp3d2 )
(ii) ClF3 : -  Lone pairs= 2

 No.of σ = 3 
    
5(sp3d)
(iii) XeF6 : -  Lone pairs= 1

 No.of σ = 6 
     
7(sp3d3 )
(iv) XeO3 : -  Lone pairs= 1

 No.of σ = 3 
     
4(sp3 )
BONDING
ion
Oxygen Containing Oxygen not containing
Put (-) ve charge on Put (+) ve charge on Put all kind of charge on
oxygen central atom central atom
BONDING (v) NH4+ : -  Lone pairs= 0
 No.of σ = 4 
    
4(sp3 )
(vi) I3— : -  Lone pairs= 3

 No.of σ = 2 
    
5 (sp3d)
(vii) PO43— : -  Lone pairs= 0

 No.of σ = 4 
    
4 (sp3 )
BONDING Examples:-
1. CO3–2
2. NO2+
3. SO4–2
4. ClO4–
5. ICl2–
6. I3+
BONDING Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPRT) :-
• Different electron pairs (bond pair and lone pair) present in the valence
shell of central atom have tendency to repel each other.
• These electron pairs arrange themselves to minimize repulsion and

maximize distance among them.
• Arrangement of these electron pairs in case of minimum repulsion is

known as electronic geometry of molecule.
• Arrangement of only bond pairs of central atom is known as

shape/structure/molecular geometry of molecule.
BONDING Possibilities of different shapes for a particular hybridization :-
of
Tetrahedral
SF2
BONDING
Sp3d3
Sp3d3
Sp3d3
CHEMICAL Question
Q. In Which of the following pair of species both are isostructural ?
(A) SO2 and SO3
(B) SO2 and H2O
(C) XeF4 and XeO4
(D) SF4 and CH4

Ans. (B)
Remember :- molecules/ions having same shape are isostructural.

CHEMICAL Question
BONDING Remember :- species having linear, V-shape, T-shape, Trigonal planar,
Square planar, Pentagonal planar are planar species.
Q. Identify planar and nonplanar species among following.
(i) SO3
(ii) NH3
(iii)PCl5
CHEMICAL Question
Q. Identification of type of p bond in a covalent molecule/ion.
Hybridization Type of p bonding

sp All p bonds are of pp-pp
sp2 One p bond is of pp-pp while

remaining are of pp-dp
sp3,sp3d,sp3d2,sp3d3 All p bonds are of pp-dp

CHEMICAL Question
BONDING Q. In which of the following molecule pp-pp as well as pp-dp bonds
are present ?
(i) CO2
(ii) SO3
(iii) XeO2F2
(iv) XeO3
Ans. (ii)
Hybridization in odd electron molecules :-
(i) If EN of side atom > EN of central atom :-
Unpaired electron of central atom participate in hybridization

•
E.g. : CF3
ENof F>ENof C 
no.ofh ybridorbitals= 4 
 3 
Hybridisationof C is sp 
(ii) If EN of side atom < EN of central atom :-
Unpaired electron of central atom does not participate in hybridization
E.g. : •
CH3
 ENof H<ENof C 
 no.ofh ybridorbitals= 3
 2 
Hybridisationof Cissp 
Remember :- NO and ClO form dimer at low temperature.
2 3
atlow temperature
NO2 + NO2 
 N2O 4
sp2 sp2
Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic,
brown coloured gas colourless solid
atlow temperature
ClO3 + ClO3   Cl2O6
sp3,Paramagnetic sp3,Diamagnetic
2 C – 3e– bond :-
Examples:-
1. NO N O
2. ClO2
BONDING
Hybridization in solid state :
Compounds which change their hybridization in solid state/liquid state.
PCl5(s) ¾® PCl4+ + PCl6–

sp3 sp3d2
PBr5(s) ¾® PBr4+ + Br–

sp3
IF5 (l) ¾® IF4+ + IF6–

sp3d sp3d3
BONDING 2 5
CHEMICAL
N O (s) ¾® NO + NO
BONDING
2
+
3
–
sp sp2
N2O4(s) ¾® NO+ + NO3–

sp2
XeF6(s) ¾® XeF5+ + F–
sp3d2
Cl2O6(s) ¾® ClO2+ + ClO4–

sp2 sp3
I2Cl6(s/l) ¾® ICl2+ + ICl4–

sp3 sp3d2 Due to Berry
pseudo rotation
PF5(s) ¾® PF4+ + PF6¯
BONDING Comparison of bond angle in different molecules :-
Factors affecting bond angle :-
(i) Hybridization / % s character :-
Bond angle µ % s character
E.g.
(i) BeCl2 > BCl3 > CCl4
sp sp2 sp3
180° 120° 109.28’
(ii) NO2+ > NO3—

sp sp2
180° 120°
(ii) Number of lone pairs on central atom :-
When in the given molecules hybridization is same but number of lone pairs
on central atom are different then
1
Bond angle µ
Number of lone pairs on central atom
10
4.5
º
BONDING (iii) Electronegativity of central atom :-
When in given molecules the hybridization is same & number of lone pairs on
central atom are same then
Bond angle µ EN of central atom

BONDING (iv) Size / Electronegativity of terminal atom :-
When in given molecules hybridization of central atom is same & number of
lone pairs on central atom are same then
1
Bond angle µ size of terminal atom µ
EN of terminal atom
Remember :- If in given molecules hybridization of central atom is same but
all molecules are symmetrical (No lp on central atom & all side atoms are
identical) ,then in such type of molecules value of bond angle is same.
E.g. BF3 = BCl3 = BBr3 = BI3
sp2 sp2 sp2 sp2

120° 120° 120° 120°
Remember :-
(a) when we compare bond angle by (iv) factor & if in any molecule Fluorine
is terminal atom, then consider EN factor instead of size factor.
(b) In hydrides of 15th & 16thgroup(except NH3 & H2O) value of bond
angle will be approximately equal to 90° (Drago's)
NH3 PH3 AsH3 SbH3

107.8° 93.6° 91.8° 91.3°
H2O H2Se
104.5° H2S H2Te
92° 91° 90°
CHEMICAL Question
BONDING
Q.1The correct order of increasing bond angles in the following
species is :-
(1) NO2+<NO2< NO2–
(2) NO2+< NO2 – <NO2
(3) NO2 – < NO2+<NO2
(4) NO2 – < NO2 <NO2+

Ans. (4)
CHEMICAL Question
Q.2 The species having bond angles of 120° is :-
(1) ClF3
(2) NCl3
(3) BCl3
(4) PH3
Ans. (3)
BONDING CHEMICAL
Comparison of bond lengths :-
BONDING
Bond length :- Intern nuclear distance between two atoms
during bond formation.
1
Bond length µ
% s character
CHEMICAL Question
Q. In PCl5 molecule all P-Cl bond lengths are not equal, why ? (Bent Rule)
Cl axial
a Cl
90 0
a>b
Cl P 1200
Cl
b
Equatorial Cl
sp3d hybridization
Ð ClPCleq-eq = 120°
Ð ClPClaxial-eq = 90°
Q % s character ® Equatorial > axial
\ bond length ® axial > Equatorial
Remember :- species having sp3d hybridization will have 2 types of

bond length(axial and equatorial).
CHEMICAL Question
BONDING Bent Rule :-
1. More EN element will occupy those orbital for bonding having less % of s
character (axial)
2. Less EN, multiple bond and lone pair will occupy those orbital for bonding
having high % of s character (equatorial)
Examples:-
1. XeF2
2. XeO2F2
3. XeO3F2
4. PCl3F2
Remember :- In SF molecule all S-F bond lengths are equal
6
Q All ÐF-S-F= 90°

\ % s character at all positions are equal.
\ All S-F bond lengths are equal.
CHEMICAL Question
Q. In which of the following molecules all bond lengths are
not equal ?
(1) NF3
(2) ClF3
(3) BF3
(4) AlF3
Ans. (2)
CHEMICAL COORDINATE BOND / DATIVE BOND
BONDING •
CHEMICAL BONDING
Unlike covalent bond it is formed by unequal contribution of electrons
between two atoms .
• Shared electron pair is contributed by one atom only (donor-Lewis base).
• Other atom (acceptor-Lewis acid) only provides vacant orbital
• Necessary condition is that one atom should have lone pair while other
atoms should have vacant orbital.
Q. Which of the following species does not have coordinate bond ?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4) H3O+
Ans. (3)
Q. Which of the following compound has ionic, covalent as well as
coordinate bond ?
(1) NaNO2
(2) HNO3
(3) NH4Cl
(4) KCl
Ans. (3)
CHEMICAL DIPOLE MOMENT
DIPOLE MOMENT (µ) :-
• Polarity of a covalent molecule is measured in the terms of dipole
moment.
• Polarity of a covalent bond µ DEN
Ex. H2 DEN = 0 Non – Polar
HF DEN ¹ 0 Polar
• Polarity of a covalent molecule µ m

Dipole moment of a polar covalent bond :-
• Product of charge (q) and internuclear distance (d).
+ m
Where q :- charge induced on covalently bonded atoms due to DEN

d :- Internuclear distance
• Dipole moment is a vector quantity having direction from less EN atom to

more EN atom.
• In the case of lp, direction is from central atom towards lp.
• Unit of dipole moment is Debye(D).
• 1 Debye = 1 x 10–18 esu.cm
Comparison of dipole moment among different molecules :-
(i) For diatomic molecules :-
µ µ DEN
(ii) For polyatomic molecules :-

µnet is equal to vector sum of dipole moments present in polyatomic
molecule.
B C
Some important results :-
• If µnet=0, molecule is nonpolar while if µnet ¹ 0,molecule is polar.
• If θ =00, µmax= (condition of maximum )
• If θ =1800, µmin= (condition of minimum )

BONDING Case I :-
CHEMICAL BONDING
If in a molecule central atom having no lone pair on it and all Side
atoms are identical , then it will be non polar and µ=0
m1 m1
E.g. CO2 Þ µnet=0,nonpolar
E.g. BF3 Þ µnet=0,nonpolar
Other examples :- CH4 , PCl5 ,SF6 , IF7 etc.

BONDING
Case II :- If in a molecule central atom has one lone pair on it, then it will be
polar and µ ¹ 0
E.g. NH3 Þ µnet ¹ 0,Polar

Case III :- If in a molecule central atom has more than one lone pair on it,
then it may be polar or nonpolar depending on vector sum.
E.g. (i) H2O Þ µnet ¹ 0,Polar
m1
1
m
E.g. (ii) XeF2 Þ µnet = 0,Nonpolar
BONDING Case IV :-
CHEMICAL BONDING
If in a molecule side atoms are different, then it may be polar or
nonpolar depending on vector sum.
E.g. (i) PCl3F2 Þ µnet = 0,Nonpolar
E.g. (ii) PCl2F3 Þ µnet ¹ 0,polar

BONDING Q. Identify Polar and nonpolar species among following :-
(i) SO3 N.P.
(ii) SO2 P
(iii) CH4 N.P.

P
(iv) H2O
P
(v) XeF6
N.P.
(vi) XeF4
P
(vii) CH3Cl P
(viii) POCl3 N.P.
(ix) IF7 P
(x) BrF5
Q. Compare dipole moment among species given in following
sequences:-
(i) NH3 & NF3
NH3 > NF3
µnet ¹ 0 µnet ¹ 0
Remember :- If dipole moment of bp and lp are in the same direction than

they get added and if they are in opposite direction than they get subtracted.
BONDING (ii) NH3 & NBr3
NH3 > NBr3
µnet ¹ 0 µnet ¹ 0
ΔEN  ,q  ,μ  ΔEN  ,q  ,μ 
(iii) NH3 & PH3
NH3 > PH3

BONDING
Q. Which of the following compound has maximum dipole moment ?
(1) SO3 (2) CCl4
(3) PCl5 (4) NF3
Ans. (4)
Q. Which of the following sequence of dipole moment is correct?
(1) NH3< NF3<BF3
(2) NF3 < NH3 <BF3
(3) BF3 < NF3 < NH3
(4) BF3 < NH3 < NF3
Ans. (3)
Some important orders of dipole moment :-
(i) CH3Cl > CH3F > CH3Br > CH3I
(ii) CCl4 < CHCl3 < CH2Cl2 < CH3Cl

 0 1.02 D 1.55D 1.93D
CHEMICAL Application of Dipole Moment
Applications of dipole moment :-
(i) If µ = 0 molecule is symmetrical

If µ ¹ 0 molecule is unsymmetrical
(ii) To distinguish cis and trans form :-
Remember :- Normally cis isomer is more polar than trans isomer.

Remember :- If two groups have opposite inductive effect then

trans isomer is more polar then cis isomer.
(iii) To locate positions of substituents in aromatic compounds :-
𝟏
µ∝
𝜽
(iv) To calculate % ionic character in a covalent molecule :-

Experiment valueof μ µ
% ionic character = × 100 ¿ 𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
Theoreticalvalueof μ µ𝒕
CHEMICAL Illustration
BONDING Q.
CHEMICAL BONDING
Calculate % ionic character or charge fraction in a molecule in which bond length is
1.00 A0 and charge is equal to 4.8 × 10–10 esu. Given that experimental value of
dipole moment is 1.2 D.
µ0
Sol. Ionic character = × 100
µt
µ0 1.2 × 10 -18
= × 100 = –10 -8
× 100 = 25%
q×d 4.8 × 10 × 1 × 10
CHEMICAL MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY (MOT)
Drawbacks of VBT :-
(i) It could not explain magnetic behaviour of some diatomic species
(Para magnetism of O2)
(ii) It could not explain fractional bond order in diatomic species.
(iii) It could not explain existence/non existence of some diatomic species.

BONDING CHEMICAL
Important Postulates of MOT :-
BONDING
(i) As electrons of an atom are present in its atomic orbitals similarly
electrons of a molecule are present in its molecular orbitals.
(ii) When two atoms combine through covalent bond then their atomic
orbitals of almost same energy and same symmetry get combined and
molecular orbitals are formed.
(iii) The number of molecular orbitals = number of combining atomic

orbitals
BONDING CHEMICAL
Important Postulates of MOT :-
BONDING
(iv) On the basis of combination of wave function of electrons present
in atomic orbitals, two types of molecular orbitals are formed
(A) Bonding molecular orbital (BMO)

(B) Antibonding molecular orbital (ABMO)
ABMO
A.O. + A.O.
BMO
Comparison between Bonding molecular orbital and Anti bonding
molecular orbitals :-
Bonding molecular orbital Anti Bonding molecular orbital
more
Molecular orbital diagram of a molecule

BONDING Representation of different molecular orbitals :-
Let Z axis is assumed to be internuclear axis
n
ac tio
su bt r
Add
iti on
BONDING
o n
cti
bt ra
su
Add
iti on
p*2px(ABMO)
p2px(BMO)
Filling of electrons in molecular orbitals of a homodiatomic molecule :-
Electrons are filled in molecular orbitals according to Aufbau principle, Pauli’s
exclusion principle and Hund’s rule.
[more than 14 e—]
[less than or equal to 14 e—]
Remember :- in molecules having atomic no ≤ 7 energy of s 2pz orbitals is

higher than p 2px & p 2py orbitals due to s-p mixing.
Energy level diagram:-
2p 2p
For the species having electrons

greater than 14
2s 2s
1s 1s
Energy level diagram:-
2p 2p
For the species having electrons

less than or equal to 14
2s 2s
1s 1s
Bond order :- It represent the number of bonds between two atoms.
1
Bondorder: - Nb – Na 
2
where
Nb = Total number of bonding electron
Na = Total number of antibonding electron
If Nb > Na Þ Bond order ¹ 0, Molecule exists
If Nb =Na Þ Bond order = 0, Molecule does not exist

Remember :- Whenever bond order is positive then molecule will exist
but if bond order is zero or negative then molecule does not exist.
Applications of bond order :-
(B.O. µ B.S. µ B.E. µ Stability µ )
e.g. F2 O2 N2
F–F O=O NºN
(1) (2) (3)
Magnetic properties:-
(a) When electrons in MO are paired, molecule will be diamagnetic

(b) When electrons in MO are unpaired, molecule will be paramagnetic
Remember:- for isoelectronic molecular species value of bond order and
magnetic nature generally remains same.
BONDING Q. Write electronic configuration of O2 and explain its paramagnetic
nature :-
2p 2p
2s 2s
1s 1s
BONDING Q. Write electronic configuration of O2 and explain its paramagnetic nature :-
BONDING Q. Compare Bond order, bond length, bond strength of O2 , , .
Superoxide
Peroxide
Sol. O2 , ,
No of e. 16 17 18
Bond order 2 1.5 1
Magnetic nature para para dia
Order of Bond order and bond strength :-

Order of Bond length :-
Q. Which of the following molecule have only p bond ?
(1) N2 (2) F2 (3) O2 (4) C2
2p 2p
2s 2s
B2 & C2 having net p bond only

1s 1s
Remember :- If different molecular ions of a molecule having same bond
order then the molecular ion having less no of electrons in ABMO will be
more stable.
Q. Compare stability of
Ans. N2 > N2+ > N2–

Q. In Which of the following pair of species both species do not exist ?
(1) Li2 , B2 (2) Be2 , He2
(3) CO, NO (4)
Remember :- If total electrons are 4, 8 & 20 then B.O. is zero and

molecule doesn't exist.
Q. Number of s and p bonds in compound CaC are respectively :-
2
(1) 2,1 (2) 1,3

(3) 1,2 (4) 2,2
Ans. (3)
CHEMICAL WEAK FORCES
Weak Forces
Hydrogen Bond Vander Waals force

BONDING •
CHEMICAL
Ion-Dipole force
BONDING
Between Ion and Polar molecule
e.g. Na+ and H2O
• Ion-Induced dipole force
Between Ion and Non polar molecule
e.g. I— and I2
Li+ and Cl2

BONDING CHEMICAL
Vander Waals force :- BONDING
• Dipole-dipole (Keesome force)
Between polar and polar molecule
e.g. HCl and HCl
• Dipole-Induced dipole(Debye force)
Between polar and non polar molecule
e.g. HCl and Cl2
• Instantaneous Dipole-Induced dipole (London / Dispersion Force)
Between Non-polar and Non-polar molecule
Between atoms of an inert gas
e.g. Cl2 and Cl2
Xe and Xe
H2 and H2
CHEMICAL Question
Order of Strength :
(Keesome > Debye > London / dispersion)
Q. Identify the type of weak force among the following pair of species.
(1) HCl – HCl
(2) H2S – H2S
(3) HCl – Cl2
(4) H2O – CCl4

(5) Xe – H2O
(6) C6H6 – C6H6
(7) NH3 – NH3
(8) Cl– – H2O
(9) Br– – Br2
(10) He – He
BONDING
VWF a Molecular Weight :-
Melting Point
Liquefaction Tendency
CHEMICAL HYDROGEN BOND
BONDING CHEMICAL
Hydrogen Bonding :-
BONDING
When hydrogen is covalently bonded with a more electronegative atom like
F,O,N then this hydrogen atom is attached with an another more EN atom
having lone pair on it through an electrostatic attraction. this attraction is
known as Hydrogen Bond.
BONDING
CHEMICAL Question
BONDING
Q. Order of strength of hydrogen bond.
(a) F-H……F
(b) N-H……O
(c) N-H……N
(d) O-H……O
(e) O-H……N
CONCEPT: X-H……Y
First check X(more EN)
If X is same, then check Y(less EN)
Ans. a>e>d>c>b
TYPES OF HYDROGEN BOND:-
BONDING CHEMICAL
Intermolecular Hydrogen Bond :-
BONDING
When hydrogen bond is formed between discrete molecules of same or
different compound.
E.g.:-
(i) HF(s)
Zig - Zag
(ii) NH3(s)
Linear
BONDING CHEMICAL
(iii) Structure of Ice:
BONDING
Ice has open cage like structure due to which distance between H2O
molecules increases, hence volume increases and density decreases. This is
the reason why ice can float over water. Water has maximum density at 40C.
BONDING (iv) Boric Acid(H3BO3): having 2D sheet like structure H
O
H B
O O
H H
O O
H B H H
O O
O
H B H B
H
(v) Acetic Acid(CH3COOH): exist in the O O O O
form of dimer through Hydrogen bond H H
in C6H6.
O H O
H3C C C CH3
O H O
(vi) Crystal Structure of KHCO3 & NaHCO3 :-
NaHCO3 exist in polymeric form while KHCO3 exist in dimer form

- - -
O O H O O H O O H
C C C
Na Na
O O O
O- H O
O C
K K C O
-
O H O
Other examples of intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding :-
(1) If two ice cubes are pressed together they stick due to Hydrogen
Bonding.
(2) Attachment of ice-cream with a wooden stick is an example of
Hydrogen Bonding.
(3) Urea ,DNA , p-Nitrophenol, Protine etc.

Intramolecular Hydrogen bond:
When hydrogen bond is formed with in a molecule.
E.g. : (1) o-nitrophenol (2) salicylaldehyde
H H O
O O C
H
N O
O
(3) salicylic acid (4) chloral hydrate
H H
O Cl O
O
C
Cl C C H
OH
O
Cl H
CHEMICAL APPLICATION OF HYDROGEN BONDING
BONDING CHEMICAL
Application of Hydrogen Bonding :-
BONDING
1. Hydrogen Bonding ↑ Solubility ↑
Melting Point ↑
2. Hydrogen Bonding ↑ Boiling Point ↑ Volatility ↓
Viscosity ↑ Vapour Pressure ↓
Surface Tension ↑
Intramolecular Hydrogen BondIntermolecular Hydrogen Bond
• Molecules are attached with Keesome • Molecules are attached with H-bonds.
force. • Strong association of molecules.
• Weak association of molecules. • High boiling point because its not easy
• Low boiling point because it's easier to to break H-bond .
break VWF than H-bond . • High Viscosity
• Low Viscosity • Less volatile
• Highly volatile • More soluble in water
• Less soluble in water because to
dissolve in water it has to make H-bonds
& no molecule is free to form H-bonds
CHEMICAL Question
Q. If Boiling point of o-nitro phenol is X and Boiling point of p-nitro phenol
is Y then:
(1) X > Y
(2) X < Y
(3) X = Y
(4) None
Ans. (2)
Order of Boiling Point for 15 ,16 and 17 group hydride.
th th th
H-bond
H-bond
Weak H-bond
CHEMICAL Question
Q. KHF is partially ionized, explain why?
2
KHF2 ¾® K+ + HF2—
HF2— is a stable entity due to hydrogen bonding

F–----- H-F(strong hydrogen bond formed between H and F– )
KHCl2, KHBr2, KHI2 ¾® are unstable
CHEMICAL Question
Q. Acidic water may contains ?
(1) H3O+
(2) H5O2+
(3) H7O3+
(4) All
Ans. (4)
CHEMICAL Question
Q. Which of the following order of Viscosity is correct?
(1) as no. of –OH group ↑

no. of H bonds↑
so Viscosity ↑
(2) HNO3 < H2SO4 < H3PO4

(3) O-nitrophenol < p-nitrophenol
(4) All
CHEMICAL FORMAL CHARGE AND BOND ORDER
BONDING CHEMICAL
For Polyatomic Molecules:
BONDING
Bond Order = Total no of bonds/Resonating structure
Formal Charge = Total (–) ve charge/no of oxygen in resonance
E.g.:- CO3–2
CHEMICAL FORMAL CHARGE & BOND ORDER
Bond Order = 4/3 = 1.33
Formal Charge = –2/3 = – 0.67
E.g.:- SO4–2
Bond Order = 6/4 =3/2 = 1.5
Formal Charge = –2/4 = –1/2= – 0.5

CHEMICAL FORMAL CHARGE & BOND ORDER
E.g.:- ClO4–
Bond Order =7/4=1.75
Formal Charge = 1/4=-0.25
E.g.:- PO4–3
Bond Order = 5/4 = 1.25
Formal Charge = –3/4 = – 0.75

CHEMICAL Question
Q . Compare Bond strength?
ClO4– > SO4–2 > PO4–3
CHEMICAL Question
Q. Compare Bond length ?
ClO4– < ClO3 – < ClO2 – < ClO –
CHEMICAL Question
Q . Compare C-O Bond strength?
CO > CO2 > CO3–2
CHEMICAL Question
BONDING
Q . Compare O-O Bond length?
H2O2 > O3 > O2
CHEMICAL FORMAL CHARGE
Formal Charge :- Valence electrons-no of bonds-lone pair electrons
 .. .. .. 
E.g. O3 = : O = O  O :
 . . 
O1= 6 – 2 – 4 = 0
O2= 6 – 3 – 2 = + 1
O3= 6 – 1 – 6 = – 17
CHEMICAL IONIC BOND/ELECTROVALENT BOND
BONDING •
CHEMICAL BONDING
It is the electrostatic force of attraction between cation and anion .
• The chemical bond formed between two or more atoms as a result of the
complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another is
called Ionic or electrovalent bond.
• Total number of electron lost or gained is called electro valency.
Example : Mg O Ca Cl
2, 8, 2 2, 6 2 ,8 ,8 ,2 2 ,8 ,7
2e– –
One e
electro valency of Mg = 2 One e

–
electro valency of O = 2
electro valency of Ca = 2
electro valency of Cl = 1
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUND
Physical state :-
• Ionic compounds are hard, crystalline due to strong electrostatic force of
attraction .
• They are brittle in nature.
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
Brittleness + + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
Attraction Repulsion
{ Same charged ions come closer. So they repel each other.}

BONDING
Isomorphism :–
(1) Two compounds are said to be isomorphous if they have similar no. of
electrons i.e. similar configuration of their cation and anion.
(2) They have similar crystal structure.
Example :- Na+ F– Mg2+ and O2–
Valency +1 –1 +2 –2
Electronic (2,8) (2,8) (2,8) (2,8) Isomorphous
configuration
pair
similarly Ca+2 2Cl– 2K+1 and S–2 Isomorphous

(2,8,8) (2,8,8) (2,8,8) (2,8,8) pair
BONDING • Boiling point and melting point :-
Ionic compounds have high boiling point and melting point due to strong
electrostatic force of attraction among oppositely charged ions.
• Conductivity :-
In solid state these are bad conductor of electricity due to absence of free
mobile ion. In fused state or aqueous solution Due to presence of free
ions they are Good conductor of electricity.
Conductivity order ¾® [Solid state < fused state < Aqueous solution]
• Solubility :-
Generally more soluble in Polar solvents like water.
Less soluble in non polar solvents like benzene.
Ex. NaCl form a true solution in water but insoluble in CCl4.
CHEMICAL LATTICE ENERGY
BONDING Definition :-
CHEMICAL BONDING
The amount of energy released when gaseous cation and anion are
combined to form one mole of ionic compound solid is called lattice
energy .
• It depends upon electrostatic force of attraction and affect the stability
of compounds .
• Factors affecting Lattice energy :-
(1) L.E. α Z + , Z– (Where Z + , Z– are charges of cation and

anion respectively)
1
(2) L.E. α ( Where
+ –
r +
and r –
are the radius of cation and anion
respectively ) r + r
CHEMICAL Question
Q. Arrange the following in the correct order of lattice energy :
(1) Na2O MgO Al2O3
(2) AlF3 Al2O3 AlN
(3) LiCl NaCl KCl RbCl CsCl

CHEMICAL BORN HABER’S CYCLE
BONDING CHEMICAL
(Mechanism of ionic bond formation)
BONDING
SE
DHf SE
CHEMICAL BORN HABER’S CYCLE
BONDING Favourable conditions for ionic bond formation :-
Low SBE
High DHeg
Low IE Absorbed energy Released energy
Low BDE High L.E.
Born Haber's Cycle:- SBE + IE + ½ BDE > DHeg – L.E.
(Endothermic process) (Exothermic process)
Case no. 1 :- If DHf is more (–) ve then the compound is more stable .
Case no. 2 :- If DHf is less (–) ve then the compound is less stable .
Case no. 3 :- If DHf is (+) ve then the compound is unstable .
CHEMICAL Question
Q. Heat of sublimation of Na = x J
Ionization energy of Na= y J
Bond dissociation energy of Cl2 = a J
e– gain enthalpy of Cl = b J
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl = c J
Then what will be lattice energy of NaCl(s) = ?
Sol.
CHEMICAL HYDRATION ENERGY
BONDING •
CHEMICAL BONDING
Amount of energy released in the hydration of one mole of ionic crystal is
known as Hydration energy.
• If this released amount of energy (HE) is greater than amount of energy

required to break the bond (LE) , then substance is considered as soluble.
Dielectric constant :-
Capacity of a medium to minimize interionic attraction by neutralizing the
charge of ions is known as dielectric constant.
E.g.:- HF ¾® 120
H2SO4 ¾® 102
H2O ¾® 81
D2O ¾® 78
CHEMICAL MECHANISM OF SOLVENCY
(Ion – dipole attraction)
Solute :- NaCl (s)
Solvent :- H2O
L.E. - lattice energy (Electrostatic force of attraction)

H.E. - Hydration energy
Case no. 1 :- HE > LE (then more soluble)

Case no. 2 :- HE < LE (then sparingly soluble / insoluble)
Factors Affecting HE:-
(1) HE a charge ( Z+ Z – )
1 1
(2) HE a 
 
r r
Hydration tendency :-
 Charge on ion 
Hydrogen tendancy  size of ion 
Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+ Cs+

r + () Hydration tendency ()
E.g. :- ( In Aqueous solution)
Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+ Cs+
Ionic Radius ()
Hydrated radii ()
Movement of ions ()
Ionic mobility ()
Ionic conductivity ()
CHEMICAL POLARISATION (FAJAN’S RULE)
•Covalent character in an ionic compounds can be explained with the help
of polarisation .
• Distortion in the e– cloud of an anion due to the attraction of adjacent

cation.
• Due to polarisation, covalent character are produced.
High zeff
(Distorted Anion)
• For cation :- Polarising power term is used .

• For anion :- Polarisability term is used .
BONDING CHEMICAL
Polarising power :-
BONDING
It is the power of cation to attract electron cloud of an anion towards itself.
Factors affecting polarising power :-
 
 Chargeof cation(Z + ) 
Polarizing power α +

 Sizeof cation(r )
        
 Ionic potential() 
[Polarizing power α Ionic potential (ɸ) ]

BONDING •
CHEMICAL BONDING
Polarisability :- It is the ability of an anion to get polarized by adjacent
cation.
Factors affecting Polarizability :-
Polarizability µ (-ve) Charge of anion
Polarizability µ Size of anion
• Effective conditions of polarisation :-

(1) Size of cation should be smaller.
(2) Size of anion should be large.
(3) Charge on cation/anion should be High .
BeCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 BaCl2
E.g. :- 
Size of cation 

Polarisation 
Covalent character 
BONDING BeCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 BaCl2
E.g. :- 
Size of cation

Polarisation ¯
Covalent character ¯
BONDING
+1 +2 +3 +4
NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4
(2) 
Charge on cation 

polarisaton 
Covalent character 
AlF3–1 Al2O3–2 AlN–3

(3) 
Charge on Anion 

Polarisation 
BONDING Compare covalent character in the following sequences
Q. CrO Cr2O3 CrO3
+ + + + +
Q. LiCl NaCl KCl RbCl CsCl
Q. PbF2 PbCl2 PbBr2 PbI2

BONDING Order of polarizing power for some special type of cations :-
• Stability of Cations :-
Inert gas configuration > Pseudo inert gas > Inert pair effect
configuration
(8 e–) (18 e–) (18 +2e–)
• Order of polarizing power of Cations :-

Pseudo inert gas configuration > Inert pair effect > Inert gas
configuration
(18 e–) (18 + 2e–) (8 e–)
+ + +
Example of cation . :- NaCl  TCl  CuCl
(8e – ) (18 + 2e – ) (18e – )
BONDING
Q. Among LiCl, BeCl2 , BCl3 and CCl4, the covalent bond character
follows the order :
(1) LiCl < BeCl2 > BCl3 > CCl4
(2) LiCl > BeCl2 < BCl3 < CCl4
(3) LiCl < BeCl2 < BCl3 < CCl4
(4) LiCl > BeCl2 > BCl3 > CCl4

BONDING
Q. Which one of the following show correct order of covalent
character ?
(1) ZnO < ZnS
(2) ZnS = ZnO
(3) ZnS < ZnO
(4) None
CHEMICAL APPLICATION OF FAJAN’S RULE
BONDING
SOLUBILITY :-
LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE
• Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents like H2O.
• Polar Covalent compounds are soluble in polar organic solvents like

acetone, ether
• Non polar compounds are more soluble in non polar solvents like
benzene,CCl4.
CHEMICAL SOLUBILITY
BONDING (A) Solubility of ionic compounds of s-block:
(i) Solubility µ Hydration energy
(ii) 1
Solubility 
Latticeenergy
• If common ion is smaller than apply L.E.

(F– , O–2 , OH– , Li+ , Mg+2, Be+2 etc.)
• If common ion is larger than apply H.E.

(CO3–2 , SO4–2 , NO3– , ClO4– , HCO3– , Cs+ etc.)
CHEMICAL SOLUBILITY
BONDING Q. Compare Solubility in following :-
(1) Li2O Na2O K2O Rb2O Cs2O
(Common ion O–2 , Apply L.E.)
Size( ↑ ) , L.E. ( ↓ ) , Solubility ( ↑ )
(2) CsF CsCl CsBr CsI
(Common ion Cs+, Apply H.E.)
Size(↑ ) , H.E.(↓ ) , Solubility (↓ )

CHEMICAL SOLUBILITY
BONDING
(3) Be(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Sr(OH)2 Ba(OH)2
(Common ion OH- ,Apply L.E.)
Size( ↑ ) , L.E. (↓ ) , Solubility (↑ )
(4) BeSO4 MgSO4 CaSO4 SrSO4 BaSO4
(Common ion SO4–2,Apply H.E.)
Size(↑ ) , H.E.(↓ ) , Solubility (↓ )

CHEMICAL SOLUBILITY
BONDING (B) Solubility of ionic compounds of p and d block:
1
Solubility 
Covalentcharacter
AgF AgCl AgBr AgI

E.g. :- 
Size of anion 

Solubility 
CHEMICAL SOLUBILITY
BONDING Q. Compare solubility in following sequence.
(i) PbF2 PbCl2 PbBr2 PbI2

Size of anion(↑)
Covalent character ( ↑ )
Solubility (↓ )
(ii) SnCl2 SnCl4
Charge of cation (↑ )
Covalent character (↑ )
Solubility (↓)
CHEMICAL SOLUBILITY
BONDING
Exceptional Order of solubility :
(1) In IIA Fluorides BeF2 is highly soluble due to it’s high H.E.
MgF2 < CaF2 < SrF2 < BaF2 < BeF2
(2) In IA CO3–2 , HCO3– solubility increases on moving down the group.
Li2CO3 < Na2CO3 < K2CO3 < Rb2CO3 < Cs2CO3

CHEMICAL THERMAL STABILITY
BONDING Temperature up to which a substance can retain it’s original composition.
BONDING
• Smaller Cation is stable with Smaller Anion
• Larger Cation is stable with Larger Anion
• Smaller ion is unstable with Larger ion

BONDING
Thermal stability of ionic compounds having polyatomic anions
 1  Chargeof cation
 Thermal stability α Ionic potential ()  =
Sizeof cation
Low ɸ More thermally stable

High ɸ less thermally stable
BONDING
E.g.:- Li2CO3 Na2CO3 K2CO3 Rb2CO3 Cs2CO3
Size of cation ()
ɸ ()
Covalent character()
Thermal stability ()
Δ
Li2CO3   Li2O + CO2
O—
Δ
2 Li +
C=O   Li2O + CO2
— O
BONDING Q Compare thermal stability in following sequences
(i) LiNO3 NaNO3 KNO3 RbNO3 CsNO3
(ii) BeSO4 MgSO4 CaSO4 SrSO4 BaSO4
(iii) Na2O2 K2O2 Rb2O2 Cs2O2

BONDING
Thermal stability of ionic compounds having monoatomic anions
In a group :-
Thermal stability a Lattice energy
In a period :-
Thermal stability a DEN

BONDING Q. Compare Thermal Stability in following sequence:-
(1) LiF NaF KF RbF CsF
(2) LiH NaH KH RbH CsH
(3) NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4

CHEMICAL HEATING EFFECT
BONDING
Heating of Metal Carbonate:
Δ
Metal carbnonate   Metal Oxide + CO2
(Except carbonates of
Na, K, Rb ,Cs)
Ex.:- Δ
CaCO3   CaO + CO2
Δ
MgCO3   MgO + CO2
Δ
BeCO3   BeO + CO2
Δ
ZnCO3   ZnO + CO2
Δ
Na2 CO3   No Thermal Decomposition
Δ
K2 CO3   No Thermal Decomposition
BONDING Heating of Metal nitrate:
Δ
Metal Nitrate   Metal Oxide + NO2 + O2
(Except nitrates of
Na, K, Rb , Cs)
Δ
E.g.:- Ca(NO3 )2   CaO + NO2 + O2
Δ
Zn(NO3 )2   ZnO + NO2 + O2
Δ
Pb(NO3 )2   PbO + NO2 + O2
Δ
LiNO3   Li2O + NO2 + O2
Δ
AgNO3   Ag + NO2 + O2
Δ
Metal Nitrate   Metal nitrite + O2
(Na, K, Rb , Cs)
BONDING
Heating of Metal Hydroxide:
Δ
All Metal Hydroxide   Metal Oxide+ H2 O
Δ
E.g.:- Mg(OH)2   MgO + H2O
Δ
Ca(OH)2   CaO + H2O
Δ ZnO + H2O
Zn(OH)2  
BONDING
Thermal stability of Metal Bicarbonates:-
Δ
Metal Bicarbonate   Metal Carbonate+ CO2 + H2 O
Δ
E.g.:- Ca(HCO3 )2   CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Δ
NaHCO3   Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
BONDING
Thermal decomposition of Metal Sulphate:
Δ
Metal Sulphate   Metal Oxide + SO3
Δ D
E.g.:- ZnSO4 .7H2 O   ZnSO4 ZnO + SO3
Δ D
CuSO4 .7H2 O   CuSO4 CuO + SO3
Δ D
FeSO4 .7H2 O 
 FeSO4 Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
Δ D D
 CaSO4. ½ H2O
CaSO4 .2H2 O  CaSO4
Gypsum Plaster of Paris Dead Burnt Plaster
CaO + SO3
BONDING
Thermal stability of Metal Chloride:
CHLORIDE
ANHYDROU
HYDRATED
S
BONDING
ANHYDROUS CHLORIDE
Δ
 FeCl2 + Cl2
FeCl3 
Δ
PbCl4 
 PbCl + Cl
2 2
Δ
HgCl2 

Hg2Cl2 + Cl2
Δ
PCl5 

PCl3 + Cl2
BONDING
HYDRATED CHLORIDE
Δ CaCl + H O Δ
CaCl2 .6H2 O 
 CaCl22 .6H22 O  
Δ Δ Δ
BaCl2 .6H2 O 
 CaCl
BaCl .6H.6H
BaCl2 + H2O
2 2 2 O2 O
 
Δ Δ Δ
AlCl3 .6H2 O 
 BaCl
AlCl 2 .6H
3 .6H
O 
2 O2  
Al(OH)3 + HCl Al2O3
Δ Δ
Δ
MgCl2 .6H2 O 
 AlCl23.6H
MgCl .6H22OO
 

Mg(OH)2 + HCl ΔMgO
MgCl2 .6H2 O 
CHEMICAL HEATING
HEATINGEFFECT
EFFECT
BONDING
Thermal decomposition of ammonium salts :-
NH4+ X¯
NH3 N2 , N2O
(When X=CO3–2,SO4–2,Cl–,Br–) (When X=NO3–,N02–,Cr2O7–2)
Non oxidizing/weak oxidizing oxidizing
BONDING
With non oxidising anion
Δ
(NH4 )2 CO3   NH3 + H2O + CO2
Δ
(NH4 )2 SO4   NH3 + H2O + SO3
Δ
NH4 Cl 
 NH3 + HCl
Δ
NH4Br 
 NH3 + HBr
BONDING
With Oxidising Anion:-
Δ
NH4NO3 
 N2O + H2O
Δ
NH4NO2 
 N2 + H2O
Δ
(NH4 )2 Cr2 O7 
 N2 + H2O + Cr2O3
CHEMICAL MELTING POINT
BONDING
Temperature at which a solid starts melting.
Types of solids
Covalent solid Ionic solid Molecular solid

(at melting point, (at melting point, (at melting point,
covalent bond get Ionic bond get H-bond/VWF get
weakens) weakens) weakens)
e.g. Diamond, graphite, e.g. NaCl, KCl, e.g. H2O(s)
B4C, SiC, SiO2 etc Al2O3 etc. I2(s)
CH4(s)
BONDING
Order of melting point :-
• Covalent solid > Ionic solid > Molecular solid

Diamond > NaCl > H2O(s)
E.g.:-  
meltingpoint 
• Melting point of ionic compounds
• Melting point µ Lattice energy

1
• Melting point µ
Polarization
BONDING
Examples based on lattice energy.
• Li2O > Na2O > K2O > Rb2O > Cs2O
• NaCl > KCl > RbCl > CsCl > LiCl due to polarization
• AlF3 > MgF2 > NaF

BONDING
Example based on polarization
• NaCl > MgCl2 > AlCl3
• BeCl2 < MgCl2 < CaCl2 < SrCl2 < BaCl2
• SnCl4 < SnCl2
• AgF > AgCl > AgBr > AgI

BONDING
Ex. Which of the following has least melting point
(A) CaF2
(B) CaCl2
(C) CaBr2
(D) CaI2
Ans : (D)

Chemical Bonding - Final - E

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Chemical Bonding - Final - E

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CHEMICAL

Strength of chemical bond Bond Energy

Strong Bond Weak Bond

Atoms Complete their octet:-

(iii) By unequal contribution(sharing) of electrons:- Coordinate bond is formed.

E.g. (P has 10 electrons

(d) Cation having pseudo inert gas configuration :-

Electronic Configuration of Zn+2 :- 1s2 2s2 2p6,3s2 3p6 3d10

Difference between outermost shell and valence shell of an element :-

H2 molecule O2 molecule N2 molecule

For 2nd period elements: -

* 6 C :- (Covalency is 2) E.g. :CF2,CO etc.

(Ist E.S.) (Covalency is 4) E.g. :CH4,CO2 etc.

* 8 O :- (Covalency is 2) E.g. :H2O,OF2 etc.

Maximum covalency for 2nd period elements is 4

15 P :- (Covalency is 3) E.g. PCl3,PF3 etc.

(Ist E.S.) (Covalency is 5) E.g. PCl5,PF5 etc.

So variable covalency of P is 3,5.

(IstE.S.) (Covalency is 4) E.g. SF4,SO2 etc.

(2nd E.S.) (Covalency is 6) E.g. SF6,SO3 etc.

So variable covalency of S is 2,4,6.

(Ist E.S.) :- (Covalency is 3) E.g. ClF3, BrF3 etc.

(2nd E.S.) :- (Covalency is 5) E.g. BrF5, IF5 etc.

(3rd E.S.) :- (Covalency is 7) E.g. IF7 etc.

So variable covalency of Halogens is 1,3,5,7.

So variable covalency of Xe is 2,4,6,8.

Let z-axis is internuclear axis.

(A) s—s overlapping :-

(C) p—p overlapping :-

(A) p—p overlapping (pp – pp bond)

Strength of Covalent Bond µ extent of overlapping

(i) Size of overlapping orbital (n is different) :-

E.g. (a) C — C > Si — Si > Ge — Ge > Sn — Sn

(b) H — F > H — Cl > H — Br > H — I

Bond strength µ directional nature

E.g.:- 2s – 2s < 2s – 2p < 2p – 2p

E.g.:- (2p-3d)p > (2p-3p)p

• C–H bond is formed by sp3– s overlapping

2 sp2(s+px+py) Trigonal planer

Prediction of Hybridisation state:-

Number of Hybrid Orbitals = Number of s bonds + Number of lone pair on

(ii) ClF3 : -  Lone pairs= 2

(iii) XeF6 : -  Lone pairs= 1

(iv) XeO3 : -  Lone pairs= 1

Oxygen Containing Oxygen not containing

(vi) I3— : -  Lone pairs= 3

(vii) PO43— : -  Lone pairs= 0

• These electron pairs arrange themselves to minimize repulsion and

• Arrangement of these electron pairs in case of minimum repulsion is

• Arrangement of only bond pairs of central atom is known as

(B) SO2 and H2O

(C) XeF4 and XeO4

(D) SF4 and CH4

Remember :- molecules/ions having same shape are isostructural.

Q. Identify planar and nonplanar species among following.

Hybridization Type of p bonding

sp2 One p bond is of pp-pp while

sp3,sp3d,sp3d2,sp3d3 All p bonds are of pp-dp

(i) If EN of side atom > EN of central atom :-

Unpaired electron of central atom participate in hybridization

Unpaired electron of central atom does not participate in hybridization

PCl5(s) ¾® PCl4+ + PCl6–

PBr5(s) ¾® PBr4+ + Br–