ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
LEILA C. BONDOC, MD
◦ At the end of the lecture the students will be able to:
◦ 1. Know the different endocrine glands its functions and hormones
released/produced/secreted
◦ The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs. It uses hormones to
control and coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth
and development, and response to injury, stress, and mood.
◦ The following are integral parts of the endocrine system:
◦ 1. Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain, near the optic
chiasm where the optic nerves behind each eye cross and meet.
◦ The hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of
hormones in the pituitary gland, in addition to controlling water balance, sleep,
temperature, appetite, and blood pressure.
◦ The hypothalamus’ main role is to keep the body in homeostasis Trusted Source as
much as possible. Homeostasis means a healthy and balanced internal state. The body
is always trying to achieve this balance.

◦ The hypothalamus works between the endocrine and nervous systems. The endocrine
system is a network of hormone-producing glands and organs that help regulate
bodily functions.
ROLE OF HYPOTHALAMUS
growth
◦ thirst
◦ appetite
◦ weight control
◦ emotions
◦ sleep-wake cycles
◦ sex drive
◦ childbirth
◦ breast milk production
◦ HORMONES SECRETED BY HYPOTHALAMUS:
◦ In conjunction with the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus secretes the following
hormones:
◦ 1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): This hormone helps to regulate the amount of water
in the body. This helps with blood pressure control.
◦ 2. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): This is a hormone that helps regulate
metabolism and immune response by working with the pituitary gland and adrenal
gland to release certain steroids, particularly in response to stress.
◦ 3. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: This causes the pituitary gland to release
hormones that keep the sexual organs for both men and women working properly.
◦ 4. Oxytocin - This hormone is involved in several processes. Mainly, it facilitates
childbirth and the release of a mother’s breast milk.
◦ 5. Prolactin-controlling hormones: These are hormones such as dopamine and
estrogen that tell the pituitary gland to either start or stop breast milk production in
lactating mothers.
◦ 6. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone: This hormone is the master regulator of the
thyroid. The thyroid regulates metabolism, energy levels, and developmental growth.

◦ The hypothalamus also directly influences growth hormones. It commands the

pituitary gland to either increase or decrease levels in the body, which is essential
Trusted Source for both growing children and fully developed adults.
◦ 2. Pineal body. The pineal body is located below the corpus callosum, in the middle of
the brain. It produces the hormone melatonin, which helps the body know when it's
time to sleep.
◦ HORMONES SECRETED BY PINEAL GLAND:
◦ 1. MELATONIN - Melatonin is a hormone that’s mainly produced by your pineal
gland. The importance of pineal melatonin in humans is not clear, but many
researchers believe it may help to synchronize circadian rhythms in different parts of
your body.
◦ Circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour
cycle. These natural processes respond primarily to light and dark.

◦ Your pineal gland releases the highest levels of melatonin when there’s darkness and
decreases melatonin production when you’re exposed to light.
◦ In other words, you have low levels of melatonin in your blood during the daylight
hours and peak levels of melatonin during the nighttime.
◦ Because of this, melatonin has often been referred to as a “sleep hormone.” While
melatonin is not essential for sleeping, you sleep better when you have the highest
levels of melatonin in your body.
◦ Melatonin also interacts with biologically female hormones. Research has shown that
it helps in regulating menstrual cycles.
◦ Melatonin can also protect against neurodegeneration, which is the progressive loss
of function of neurons. Neurodegeneration is present in conditions such as
Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.
◦ 3. The pituitary gland is located below the brain.
◦ Usually no larger than a pea, the gland controls many functions of the other
endocrine glands.
◦ (also known as hypophysis) is a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of your
brain below your hypothalamus.
◦ It sits in its own little chamber under your brain known as the sella turcica.
◦ It’s a part of your endocrine system and is in charge of making several essential
hormones. Your pituitary gland also tells other endocrine system glands to release
hormones.
◦ Pituitary gland is divided into two main sections: the anterior pituitary (front lobe)
and the posterior pituitary (back lobe).
◦ Pituitary is connected to your hypothalamus through a stalk of blood vessels and
nerves called the pituitary stalk (also known as infundibulum).
◦ HORMONES SECRETED BY THE PITUITARY GLAND:
◦ 1. The anterior lobe of your pituitary gland makes and releases the following
hormones:
◦ A. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotrophin): ACTH plays a role in
how your body responds to stress. It stimulates your adrenal glands to produce
cortisol (the “stress hormone”), which has many functions, including regulating
metabolism, maintaining blood pressure, regulating blood glucose (blood sugar)
levels and reducing inflammation, among others.
◦ B.Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates sperm production in people
assigned male at birth. FSH stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and plays a
role in egg development in people assigned female at birth. This is known as a
gonadotrophic hormone.
◦ C. Growth hormone (GH): In children, growth hormone stimulates growth. In other
words, it helps children grow taller. In adults, growth hormone helps maintain
healthy muscles and bones and impacts fat distribution. GH also impacts your
metabolism (how your body turns the food you eat into energy).
D. Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH stimulates ovulation in people assigned female at
birth and testosterone production in people assigned male at birth. LH is also known as
a gonadotrophic hormone because of the role it plays in controlling the function of the
ovaries and testes, known as the gonads.
E. Prolactin: Prolactin stimulates breast milk production (lactation) after giving birth. It
can affect fertility and sexual functions in adults.
F. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates your thyroid to produce
thyroid hormones that manage your metabolism, energy levels and your nervous
system.
◦ 2. The posterior lobe of your pituitary gland stores and releases the following
hormones, but your hypothalamus makes them:
A. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin): This hormone regulates the water
balance and sodium levels in your body.
B. Oxytocin: Your hypothalamus makes oxytocin, and your pituitary gland stores and
releases it. In people assigned female at birth, oxytocin helps labor to progress during
childbirth by sending signals to their uterus to contract. It also causes breast milk to
flow and influences the bonding between parent and baby. In people assigned male at
birth, oxytocin plays a role in moving sperm.
◦ 4. Thyroid and parathyroid. The thyroid gland and parathyroid glands are located in
front of the neck, below the larynx (voice box).
◦ The thyroid plays an important role in the body's metabolism.
◦ The parathyroid glands play an important role in the regulation of the body's calcium
balance.
◦ THYROID GLAND –
◦ is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the front of your neck under your skin.
It’s a part of your endocrine system and controls many of your body’s important
functions by producing and releasing (secreting) certain hormones.
◦ Your thyroid’s main job is to control the speed of your metabolism (metabolic rate),
which is the process of how your body transforms the food you consume into energy.
All of the cells in your body need energy to function.
◦ Thyroid hormones affect the following bodily functions:
◦ How your body uses energy (metabolism).
◦ Heart rate.
◦ Breathing.
◦ Digestion.
◦ Body temperature.
◦ Brain development.
◦ Mental activity.
◦ Skin and bone maintenance.
◦ Fertility.
◦ HORMONES RELEASED BY THROID GLANDS:
◦ 1. Thyroxine (T4): This is the primary hormone your thyroid makes and releases.
Although your thyroid makes the most of this hormone, it doesn’t have much of an
effect on your metabolism. Once your thyroid releases T4 into your bloodstream, it
can convert to T3 through a process called deiodination.
◦ 2. Triiodothyronine (T3): Your thyroid produces lesser amounts of T3 than T4, but it
has a much greater effect on your metabolism than T4.
◦ 3. Reverse triiodothyronine (RT3): Your thyroid makes very small amounts of RT3,
which reverses the effects of T3.
◦ 4. Calcitonin: This hormone helps regulate the amount of calcium in your blood.

◦ In order to make thyroid hormones, your thyroid gland needs iodine, an element
found in food (most commonly, iodized table salt) and water. Your thyroid gland
traps iodine and transforms it into thyroid hormones. If you have too little or too
much iodine in your body, it can affect the level of hormones your thyroid makes and
releases.
◦ PARATHYROID GLAND:
◦ The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small, oval-shaped glands. They are located
next to the two thyroid gland lobes in the neck. Each gland is usually about the size of
a pea.
◦ Function of the parathyroid glands
◦ Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone, which plays a key role in the
regulation of calcium levels in the blood. Precise calcium levels are important in the
human body, since small changes can cause muscle and nerve problems.
◦ The parathyroid hormone stimulates the following functions:
◦ Release of calcium by bones into the bloodstream
◦ Absorption of calcium from food by the intestines
◦ Conservation of calcium by the kidneys
◦ Stimulates cells in the kidney to transforms weaker forms of vitamin D into the form
that is strongest at absorbing calcium from the intestines
◦ HORMONE SECRETED BY PARATHYROID GLAND:
◦ 1. Parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in regulating the body's blood level of
calcium and phosphorus.
◦ Hyperparathyroidism is when your parathyroid glands create high amounts of
parathyroid hormone in the bloodstream.
◦ 5. Thymus. The thymus is located in the upper part of the chest and produces white
blood cells that fight infections and destroy abnormal cells.
◦ Thymus is a small gland in the lymphatic system that makes and trains special white
blood cells called T-cells. The T-cells help your immune system fight disease and
infection.
◦ Thymus gland produces most of your T-cells before birth. The rest are made in
childhood and you’ll have all the T-cells you need for life by the time you hit puberty.
◦ The primary function of the thymus gland is to train special white blood cells called
T-lymphocytes or T-cells. White blood cells (lymphocytes) travel from your bone
marrow to your thymus. The lymphocytes mature and become specialized T-cells in
your thymus.

◦ After the T-cells have matured, they enter your bloodstream. They travel to your
lymph nodes (groups of cells) and other organs in your lymphatic system, where they
help your immune system fight disease and infection.
◦ The thymus gland is most active during childhood.
◦ Your thymus actually starts making T-cells before you’re born.
◦ It keeps producing T-cells and you have all the T-cells you need by the time you reach
puberty.
◦ After puberty, your thymus gland slowly starts to decrease in size and is replaced by
fat.
◦ HORMONES PRODUCE AND RELEASES BY THYMUS:
◦ A. Thymopoietin: fuels the production of T-cells and tells the pituitary gland to
release hormones.
◦ B. Thymosin and thymulin: help make specialized types of T-cells.
◦ C. Thymic humoral factor: keeps your immune system working properly.
◦ 6. An adrenal gland is located on top of each kidney.
◦ Like many glands, the adrenal glands work hand-in-hand with the hypothalamus
and pituitary gland.
◦ Adrenal glands, also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangle-shaped glands
that are located on top of each of your two kidney. They’re a part of your endocrine
system and produce certain hormones that help regulate several important bodily
functions, including:
◦ Metabolism (how your body transforms and manages energy from the food you eat).
◦ Immune system.
◦ Blood pressure.
◦ Response to stress.
◦ Development of sexual characteristics.
◦ HORMONES SECRETED BY THE ADRENAL GLANDS
◦ A. Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone that plays several important roles.
◦ It helps control your body’s use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
◦ It also suppresses inflammation, regulates your blood pressure, increases blood
sugar and helps control your sleep-wake cycle.
◦ Adrenal glands release cortisol during times of stress to help your body get an energy
boost and better handle an emergency situation.
◦ B. Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone that plays a central role in regulating
blood pressure and the levels of sodium and potassium (electrolytes) in your blood.
◦ This means aldosterone helps regulate your blood pH (how acidic or basic it is) by
controlling the levels of electrolytes in your blood.
◦ C. DHEA(Dehydroepiandrosterone) and androgenic steroids:
◦ These hormones are weak male hormones, meaning they don’t have much biologic
impact.
◦ They are converted into female hormones (estrogens) in the ovaries and into male
hormones (androgens) in the testes. Androgens are usually thought of as male
hormones, but the female body naturally produces a small number of androgens too.
◦ D. Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine):
◦ These hormones are known as the “fight or flight” hormones and are called
catecholamines.
◦ Adrenaline and noradrenaline are capable of increasing your heart rate and force of
heart contractions, increasing blood flow to your muscles and brain and assisting in
glucose metabolism.
◦ They also control the squeezing of your blood vessels (vasoconstriction), which helps
maintain blood pressure.
◦ Your adrenal glands often release these hormones, like other adrenal hormones, when
you’re in physically and emotionally stressful situations.
◦ These hormones can be categorized into two broad groups:
◦ A. Catecholamines: Catecholamines are a group of similar substances that your body
releases into your blood in response to physical or emotional stress.
◦ The primary catecholamines are dopamine, adrenaline and noradrenaline.
◦ The adrenal medulla, the inner part of your adrenal glands, produces and releases the
catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline.
◦ B. Steroid hormones: Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation,
immune system functions, salt and water balance, development of sexual
characteristics and the ability to withstand injury and illness.
◦ The adrenal cortex, the outer region of your adrenal glands, produce and release
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and adrenal androgens, which are all types of
steroid hormones.
◦ 7. The pancreas is located across the back of the abdomen, behind the stomach. The
pancreas plays a role in digestion, as well as hormone production.
◦ The pancreas performs two main functions:
◦ Exocrine function: Produces substances (enzymes) that help with digestion.
◦ Endocrine function: Sends out hormones that control the amount of sugar in your
bloodstream.
◦ HORMONES SECRETED BY THE PANCREAS:
◦ A.. Insulin - hormone created by your pancreas that controls the amount of glucose in
your bloodstream at any given moment. It also helps store glucose in your liver, fat,
and muscles. Finally, it regulates your body's metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins.
◦ B. Glucagon - hormone that works with other hormones and bodily functions to
control glucose levels in the blood. It comes from alpha cells found in the pancreas
and is closely related to insulin-secreting beta cells, making it a crucial component
that keeps the body's blood glucose levels stable.
◦ C. Gastrin and amylin. Gastrin is primarily made in the G cells in your stomach, but
some is made in the pancreas, too.
◦ 8. Ovary. A woman's ovaries are located on both sides of the uterus, below the
opening of the fallopian tubes (tubes that extend from the uterus to the ovaries).
◦ The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands located on either side of your uterus. They
produce and store your eggs (also called ovum) and make hormones that control
your menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
◦ During ovulation, one of your ovaries releases an egg. If a sperm fertilizes this egg,
you can become pregnant.
◦ Your ovaries continue to release an egg each menstrual cycle until you reach
menopause.
◦ During menopause, your ovaries stop releasing eggs. Sometimes your ovaries can
release more than one egg (this can result in a multiple pregnancy)
◦ HORMONES SECRETED BY THE OVARIES
◦ A. ESTROGEN -Estrogen is a sex hormone that’s necessary for maintaining your
sexual and reproductive health. Estrogen levels naturally fluctuate during your
menstrual cycle and decline during menopause.
◦ Estrogen is one of two sex hormones commonly associated with people assigned
female at birth (AFAB), including cisgender women, transgender men and nonbinary
people with vaginas. Along with progesterone, estrogen plays a key role in your
reproductive health. The development of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, hips,
etc.), menstruation, pregnancy and menopause are all possible, in part, because of
estrogen.
◦ Estrogen plays an important role in other body systems, too. For this reason, although
AFAB people have the most estrogen, all genders make this hormone.

◦ There are three major forms of estrogen:

◦ A. Estrone (E1) is the primary form of estrogen that your body makes after
menopause.
◦ B. Estradiol (E2) is the primary form of estrogen in your body during your
reproductive years. It’s the most potent form of estrogen.
◦ C. Estriol (E3) is the primary form of estrogen during pregnancy.
◦ Estrogen, like all hormones, is a chemical messenger. It tells your body when to start
and stop processes affecting your sexual and reproductive health. These processes
cause important changes in your body.
◦ A. Puberty
◦ Estrogen levels rise during puberty. The increase leads to secondary sex
characteristics like breasts and changes in overall body composition (like curves).
◦ B. Menstrual cycle
◦ Along with hormones made in your brain (FSH and LH) and progesterone, estrogen
plays an important part in your menstrual cycle.
◦ These hormones coexist in a delicate balance to keep your periods regular. Estrogen
plays a role in ovulation (when your ovaries release an egg) and thickens the lining of
your uterus (endometrium) to prepare it for pregnancy.
◦ These hormones play an important role in reproductive development and
menstruation. Estrogen production is highest in the first half of your menstrual cycle
before ovulation. Progesterone rises during the second half of your cycle to prepare
your uterus for a fertilized egg (if conception occurs).
◦ C. Pregnancy & Fertility
◦ Estrogen peaks in the days leading up to ovulation. This is your most fertile period.
At the same time, estrogen thins your cervical mucus, a fluid sperm has to swim
through to reach and fertilize an egg. These estrogen-induced changes make it easier
for you to become pregnant if you have intercourse.
◦ Regardless of where you are in your menstrual cycle, the presence of estrogen makes
it more comfortable to have intercourse. It keeps your vaginal walls thick, elastic and
lubricated, reducing pain associated with penetrative sex.
◦ D. Menopause
◦ Estrogen levels drop during perimenopause, the time right before menopause.
Perimenopause may last several years before menopause. Menopause officially begins
when you don’t have a period for 12 months. It usually happens around age 51. With
menopause, your estrogen levels drop and you no longer ovulate. The decrease in
estrogen may lead to symptoms like vaginal dryness, mood changes, night sweats
and hot flashes.
◦ The primary estrogen in your body changes from estradiol (E2) to estrone (E1) during
menopause.
◦ Progesterone is an endogenous steroid hormone that is commonly produced by the
adrenal cortex as well as the gonads, which consist of the ovaries and the testes.
◦ Progesterone is also secreted by the ovarian corpus luteum during the first ten weeks
of pregnancy, followed by the placenta in the later phase of pregnancy
◦ The main function of progesterone is to prepare the endometrium (lining of your
uterus) for a fertilized egg to implant and grow. If a pregnancy doesn’t occur, the
endometrium sheds during your menstrual period. If conception occurs, progesterone
increases to support the pregnancy.
◦ Progesterone and menstruation
◦ Ovulation (when your ovary releases an egg) occurs around the middle of a person’s
menstrual cycle. The corpus luteum forms from the empty egg follicle and begins
producing progesterone. Your corpus luteum is a temporary gland that helps support
the beginning of a pregnancy if conception occurs during that cycle. Progesterone
works by thickening your uterine lining and creating a good environment for a
fertilized egg to implant.
◦ If an egg isn’t fertilized during that cycle (meaning you don’t get pregnant), the
corpus luteum breaks down, which decreases progesterone levels. Decreasing
progesterone levels means your uterine lining thins and breaks down, causing the
beginning of your menstrual period.
◦ Progesterone during pregnancy
◦ If an egg is fertilized by sperm and conception occurs, the corpus luteum doesn’t
break down and continues to make more progesterone. Your uterine lining is thick
and rich in blood vessels, which provides nutrients for the fertilized egg (now an
embryo). Once the placenta forms, it’ll take over progesterone production.

◦ During pregnancy, progesterone levels increase each trimester, reaching their highest
level in your third trimester (weeks 28 to 40 of pregnancy). Progesterone levels
decline in the years leading up to menopause, when ovulation stops.
◦ 9. Testis. A man's testis are located in a pouch that hangs suspended outside the male
body. The testis produce testosterone and sperm.
◦ The testis — also called testicles — are two oval-shaped organs in the male
reproductive system. They’re contained in a sac of skin called the scrotum. The
scrotum hangs outside the body in the front of the pelvic region near the upper
thighs.
◦ Structures within the testis are important for the production and storage of sperm
until they’re mature enough for ejaculation.
◦ The main function of the testis is producing and storing sperm. They’re also crucial
for creating testosterone and other male hormones called androgens.

◦ HORMONES SECRETED BY TESTIS:

◦ 1. The hormone secreted by the testes is testosterone.
◦ Testosterone is important for the physical changes that happen during male puberty,
such as the development of the penis and testis.
◦ Testosterone also acts on cells in the testes to make sperm. LH( Luteinizing hormone)
is needed for the Leydig cells in the testis to make testosterone, the male sex hormone.
◦ Testosterone and FSH(Follicle Stimulating Hormone) from the pituitary gland then
act together on the seminiferous tubules (sperm-producing tubes) in the testis to
make sperm.
◦ REFERENCES:
◦ 1. Cleveland clinic
◦ 2. Mayo clinic
◦ 3. Anatomy and Physiology
◦ 4. Nurselab.com
◦ 5. Byjus.com