Module Title: BASIC

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Module Code: CSTGE701

Standard code: Eurocode 7

Drafted by: Emmanuel NZITUNGA

 Module Overview

Module Credit: 12 ---→120 Learning hours

Contact Hours including assessment = 60 hours

 Module Outline

LU1- PERFORM GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

LU2- ANALYSE SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
LU3-ANALYSE DEEP FOUNDATIONS
LU4-ANALYSE RETAINING WALLS
LU5- ANALYSE SLOPE STABILITY
 LU1- PERFORM GEOTECHNICAL
INVESTIGATION
Learning Objectives:

Having successfully completed the Learning Unit, students should be

able to:
 Identify properly subsurface soil investigation objectives according
to Eurocode
 Plan perfectly for subsurface soil investigation according to
Eurocode
 Describe correctly subsurface soil investigation methods according
to Eurocode
 Perform properly soil sampling according to Eurocode
 Perform properly in situ tests according to Eurocode
 Topic: Understanding of soil investigation

The topic will cover the following learning

outcomes:
LO 1.1 Identification of subsurface soil
investigation objectives
LO 1.2 Plan for subsurface soil investigation
LO 1.3 Describe subsurface soil investigation
methods
 Learning objectives

By the end of this topic, the learners should be to:

 Identify clearly subsurface soil investigation
objectives according to Eurocode
 Plan properly the subsurface soil investigation
according to Eurocode
 Describe properly the subsurface soil
investigation methods according to Eurocode
 Tasks

Group 1: Identification of subsurface soil

investigation objectives

Group 2: Plan for subsurface soil investigation

Group 3: Describe subsurface soil investigation

methods
 Definition of soil investigation
Soil/ground investigation means to determine
the condition of the ground, ideally before
beginning construction works

Soil exploration/investigation supplies essential

information for field and laboratory investigations

Ground investigation gives needed parameters for the

stability of the foundation of a building, a bridge, an
embankment or any other structure built on soil
 Function of Ground investigation
 Detailed information about soil
 Soil samples for basic properties of subsurface soil
(Compressibility, Strength, Chemical properties, Physical
properties, Hydrological condition)
 Ground water conditions (Ground water level, Depth of
ground water table, Pressure)
 Soil strata distribution (Soil/layer size/
Ground layer thicknesses/Depth, Soil type, Soil color, Bedrock)
 Geologic hazards (Unstable slopes hazards, Faults hazards,
Ground subsidence hazards, Flood plains hazards, Regional
seismicity hazards, fissures and voids in the underground)
 Stage of Ground investigation
 Planning of a program for soil exploration.
 Collection of disturbed and undisturbed soil or rock
samples from the holes drilled in the field
 Conducting all the necessary in-situ tests for
obtaining the strength and compressibility
characteristics of the soil or rock directly or
indirectly.
 Study of ground-water conditions and collection of
water samples for chemical analysis.
 Stage of Ground investigation
(Cont’d)
 Geophysical exploration, if required.
 Conducting all the necessary tests on the samples
of soil /rock and water collected.
 Preparation of drawings, charts, etc.
 Analysis of the data collected.
 Preparation of report.
 Stage of Ground investigation
(Cont’d)

 Geophysical exploration, if required.

 Conducting all the necessary tests on the samples
of soil /rock and water collected.
 Preparation of drawings, charts, etc.
 Analysis of the data collected.
 Preparation of report.
Soil investigation Planning
 Planning of soil investigation
Why Planning?
Geotechnical investigations shall be planned in such a
way as to ensure that relevant;
• Geotechnical information and data are available at
the various stages of the project.
• Resources (equipment, personnel, Money),
standards and guidelines are available at the various
stages of the project.
Planning of soil investigation (Cont’d)
Planning steps
1. A detailed study of the geographical condition of
the area which include
 Collection of all the available information about the
site, including the collection of existing
topographical and geological maps,
 Collection of the available hydraulic conditions, such
as water table fluctuations, flooding of the site etc,
 Access to the site.
Planning of soil investigation (Cont’d)
Planning steps

2. Preparation of a layout plan of the project.

3. Preparation of a borehole layout plan which includes
the depths and the number of boreholes suitably
distributed over the area.
4. Marking on the layout plan any additional types of
soil investigation.
Planning of soil investigation (Cont’d)
Planning steps

5. Preparation of specifications and guidelines for the

field execution of the various elements of soil
investigation.
6. Preparation of specifications and guide lines for
laboratory testing of the samples collected,
presentation of field and laboratory test results,
writing of report, etc.
 Sequence of ground investigations

These are how ground investigations arranged

 Desk studies
 Preliminary investigations
 Design investigation
 Controlling and monitoring
 Supervision of construction
 DESK STUDY

Before designing the investigation programme, the

available information and documents should be
evaluated in a desk study
• The term 'desk study' refers to a study that is
carried out purely through research, rather than
physical investigations, that is, it can be done sitting
at a desk
 DESK STUDY (Cont’d)
Examples of information and documents that can be
used:
 Geologic data (geological maps and descriptions);
 Previous investigations at the site and in the
surroundings;
 Aerial photos and previous photo interpretations;
 Topographic data/ topographical maps;
 Hydrology data
 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS
Before conducting any exploration at a project site,
there is at least a preliminary idea of the subsurface
conditions.
Many methods and resources are often available to
gain a preliminary understanding of the local soil
conditions.
These may include one or more of the following:
 Determine the geologic history of the site, including
assessments of anticipated rock and soil types
 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS
(Cont’d)
 Gathering copies of boring logs and laboratory tests from
previous investigations on this or other nearby sites
 Reviewing soil maps developed for agricultural (geology)
purposes
 Reviewing old and new aerial photographs and
topographic maps Locating foundations of adjacent
structures, especially those that might be impacted by
the proposed construction.
 Reviewing water well logs (helps establishing historical
ground water levels
 DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS
Locations and depths of the investigation points
For the spacing of investigation points and investigation
depths, the next values can be used as guidance for:
 high-rise and industrial structures, a grid pattern
with points at 15 m to 40 m distance;
 large-area structures, a grid pattern with points at
not more than 60 m distance;
 linear structures (roads, railways, channels,
pipelines, dikes, tunnels, retaining walls), a spacing
of 20 m to 200 m;
 DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS (Cont’d)
Locations and depths of the investigation points
 special structures (e.g. bridges, stacks, machinery
foundations), two to six investigation points per
foundation;
 or dams and weirs, 25 m to 75 m distance, along
vertical sections
 DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS (Cont’d)
For high-rise structures and civil engineering projects,
the larger value of the following conditions should be
applied:
Za ≥ 6 m;
Za ≥ 3* bF.
Where bF is the smaller side length of the foundation and
Za is a depth from the foundation rests
For raft foundations and structures with several
foundation elements whose effects in deeper strata are
superimposed on each other:
Za ≥ 1.5*bF
 DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS (Cont’d)
Embankments and cuttings, the larger value of
the following conditions should be met
For dams:
0,8h < Za < 1,2h
Za ≥ 6 m
Where h is the embankment height.
For cuttings:
Za ≥ 2,0 m
Za ≥ 0,4h
Where h is the dam height or depth of cutting.
 DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS (Cont’d)
For cut-off walls:
za ≥ 2 m below the surface of the stratum
impermeable to groundwater.
 DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS (Cont’d)
Report of soil exploration
 A general description of the nature of the project and its
importance.
 A general description of the topographical features and
hydraulic conditions of the site.
 A brief description of the various field and laboratory tests
carried out.
 Analysis and discussion of the test results
 Recommendations
CONTROLLING AND MONITORING
A number of checks and additional tests shall be made
during the construction and execution of the project,
when relevant, in order to check that the ground
conditions agree with those determined in the design
investigations and that the properties of the delivered
construction materials and the construction works
correspond to those presumed or specified.

The following control measures shall be applied:

 Check of ground profile when excavating
 Inspection of the bottom of the excavation.
Soil investigation methods
 Soil investigation methods
Depending on which categories of structures to be constructed,
either one or combined methods maybe used to explore the
soil.
The followings are methods of soil investigations
• GEOPHYSICAL METHODS (Seismic refraction, Electrical
resistivity, Seismic reflection, Electrical conductivity,
Gravimeter, Magnetometer, Ground-probing radar,
Thermography)
• TEST PIT OR TRENCH EXCAVATION
• TEST BORINGS
• IN-SITU TESTING METHODS (SPT, CPT, DCPT, VST, PLT,
Dilatometer Test, Pressuremeter Test (PMT), Weight
Sounding Test)
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
The stratification of soils and rocks can be determined by
geophysical methods of exploration which measure
changes in certain physical characteristics of these
materials, for example the magnetism, density, electrical
resistivity, elasticity or a combination of these properties.

Geophysical methods at best provide some missing

information between widely spaced bore holes but they
cannot replace bore holes
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS (Cont’d)
Accordingly, a number of borings are still required to
obtain soil samples from which accurate determinations
of soil properties can be made in order to verify and
complement results determined by geophysical methods.
Two particular geophysical methods
 Seismic refraction from surface and
 Electrical resistivity - are most commonly used.
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
What is the electrical resistivity method of soil
exploration?
The electrical resistivity method consists of measuring
the resistivity of the soil strata and correlating the resis­
tivity to the properties of the soil. The principal
application of the electrical resistivity method is in
investigating foundations of dams and other large
structures, particularly in exploring granular river channel
deposits or bed­rock surfaces.
The method is also used for locating fresh or salt water
boundaries.
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
How is the seismic refraction method of soil exploration
performed?
The seismic-refraction method is based on the principle
that elastic shock waves travel at different velocities in
different materials. Shock waves are generated at a point
on the ground surface, using a sledge hammer.
These waves travel deep into the ground and get
refracted at the interface of two different materials and
to the ground surface. The time of arrival of these waves
at different locations on the ground surface are recorded
by geophones, which pick up the refracted waves.
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
TEST PIT OR TRENCH EXCAVATION
Trial pit method consists of excavating the ground to a
maximum depth of 4-5m. It is simple and reliable
method of investigation.
The test is conducted using generally
 hand
 backhoe
 dozer
 shovels
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
TEST BORINGS
Boring is one of the methods used in exploring the soil. It
consists of drilling a series of vertical holes in the ground.
These are also known as exploratory borings and are
typically 75 to 600mm in diameter and 3 to 30 m deep.
Drilling is conducted using:
 Hand Operated Augers
 Power Driven Augers /Hollow-Flight Augers
 Wash Boring/ Rock Boring/Coring
 Wash Rotary Drilling
 Percussion Drilling
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
IN-SITU TESTING METHODS -Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)

SPT and CPT provide important data in cohesionless soils

due to the inability to obtain good quality, undisturbed
samples for laboratory testing.

Standard Penetration Test is the most common In-situ

test used by Geotechnical Engineers. The test was
standardized in 1920 ‘s and 1930 ‘s to what is known as
“Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
ADVANTAGES OF SPT
 Obtain both a sample & a number
 Simple equipment & Procedure
 Suitable in many soil types
 Can perform in weak rock
DISADVANTAGES OF SPT
 Disturb sample (index & tests only)
 Crude number for analysis
 Not applicable in soft clays & silts
 High variability and uncertainty
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
IN-SITU TESTING METHODS -Cone penetration test (CPT)
The static cone penetration test normally called the
Dutch cone penetration test (CPT). One of the greatest
values of the CPT consists of its function as a scale model
pile test.
The main advantages of the CPT are that the testing
procedure is relatively simple and repeatable, and the
test results can be used directly for the design purposes.
The CPT also gives a continuous record of soil resistance
values throughout the depth of penetration.
Soil investigation methods (Cont’d)
IN-SITU TESTING METHODS -Dynamic Cone Penetration
Test/Dynamic probing test (DCPT)

Dynamic probing does not require borehole therefore, it

is a simple, rapid, and relatively inexpensive way of
profiling a site. It is suitable for a small depth of
exploratory work. The equipment is generally light and
compact and is ideal for work on sites with restricted
access.
 Soil sampling
Practice done to obtain representative soil or soil samples
Categories of samples
Two categories of samples are found during the soil sampling: disturbed
and undisturbed samples.

• Disturbed Sample
A sample is called “disturbed sample “when its in-situ (in-place)
structure has not been retained.

• Undisturbed Sample
A sample is called “undisturbed sample” when the structured, stresses
and water content of the soil are preserved.
 Soil sampling (Cont’d)
Sampling equipment:
SPLIT SPOON SAMPLERS

PITCHER BARREL SAMPLERS

 Soil sampling (Cont’d)
OPEN DRIVE SAMPLER/ SHELBY TUBE
SAMPLERS
 Soil sampling (Cont’d)
PISTON SAMPLER

MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT (Sample extruder, Auger,

sample trimmer, sample ejection, sampling kits, Wash
Sampler, Retractable Plug Sampler, Test Pit Sampler,
Swedish Foil Sampler)
 Perform in situ tests

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Purpose: The objectives of the standard penetration
test are the determination of the resistance of soil at
the base of a borehole
Test result:
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Test equipment:
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Test equipment:

1 Drive shoe 5 Ball retaining pins

2 Split barrel 6 Four vent holes (min diameter 12 mm)
3 Coupling x Length of the drive shoe
4 Non return valve (ball diameter: recommended 25 mm; ball seating:
recommended 22 mm)
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Test procedure:
1. Checking equipment and calibration (Prior to each
test series, the sampler shall be checked to ensure
that it is in proper condition (dimensions). After each
test, a visual check of the straightness of the rods shall
be made.

2. Preparation of boreholes (The borehole shall be

prepared for the specified test depth. The base of the
borehole shall be clean
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Test procedure:
3. Test execution (The sampler and the drive rods shall be
lowered to the bottom of the borehole and then the hammer
assembly added. The initial penetration shall be recorded. The
sampler shall be penetrated over an initial or seating drive of
150 mm applying the 63,5 kg hammer free falling 760 mm and
the number of blows N shall be recorded. Then the sampler in
the same manner shall be driven over a test drive of 300 mm in
at least 2 increments of 150 mm. The total number of blows
required for the 300 mm penetration after the seating drive is
termed the penetration resistance of that soil layer)
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Test procedure:
4. Safety requirements (National safety regulations shall be
followed; e.g. regulations for:
 personal health and safety equipment;
 clean air, if working in confined spaces;
 ensuring the safety of the equipment.
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Test results calculation:
hammer energy ratio
The particle velocity v(t) of the measurement section is
calculated by the integration of the acceleration a(t) with
respect to time t

The force transmitted to the rods is calculated

εm (t) is the measured axial strain of the instrumented rod at time t;

Aa is the cross-sectional area of the instrumented rod;
Ea is the Young’s modulus of the instrumented rod
E(t’) is the driving energy which passes into the instrumented drive rod up
to time t’ after the impact
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Etheor = m × g × h

h is the falling height of the hammer;

m is the mass of the hammer;
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Corrections to the observed SPT value
The following corrections are normally applied to the
observed N values. They are:

 Energy delivered to the drive rods

 Energy delivered to the length of rods
 Inner diameter of sampler
 Effect of overburden pressure in Sand
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Correction factor due to the energy delivered to the drive rods

For general design and comparison purposes in sands, the N-

values should be adjusted to a reference energy ratio of 60
%, by the following equation:

Correction factor due to the energy delivered to the length of rods

Rod length below the anvil (m) Correction factor (λ)
>10 1.0
6-10 0.95
4-6 0.85
3-4 0.75
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Correction factor due the inner diameter of sampler

If the inner diameter of the sampler is 3,0 mm larger than

that of the shoe, as mentioned in the section of sampler no
correction is necessary if a liner of appropriate thickness is
used, such that the inside of the whole sampler is practically
flush to a uniform diameter of 35 mm. Nevertheless,
attention should be paid to the eventual damage of the liner
during driving and its influence on the corresponding blow
count. If the liner is omitted, the additional clearance of the
inside of the barrel with reference to the shoe leads to N-
values between 10 % and 20 % lower in sands
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Correction factor due to the effect of overburden pressure in
sands
The effect of the overburden pressure in the N-value in
sands may be taken into account, for example, by applying to
the measured N-value the correction factor CN given in Table
with reference to the type of consolidation and the density
index ID
 Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

If all the correction factors corresponding to this test

procedure are applied for a design method based on an
energy ratio of 60 %, the following value for the final blow
count would be obtained
Perform in situ tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test
A dynamic probing test (DPT), known as Light Weight dynamic
penetrometer (DPL) or Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

Purpose: The objectives of the Dynamic cone penetration

test/ Dynamic probing are the determination of the
resistance of soil and soft rock in situ.
Test result:
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test

DCPT equipment setup

1 Anvil
2 Part of instrumented rod
3 Drive Rod
4 Strain gauge (measuring
transducer)
5 Accelerometer
6 Ground F Force
dr Diameter of the rod
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test

DCPT equipment setup

1 Extension rod
2 Injection hole (optional)
3 Thread mounting
4 Cone tip
5 Cone
6 Mantle
7 Point mounting
L Mantle length
D Base diameter
dr Rod diameter
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test

DCPT Test procedure

1. Equipment checks and calibrations (The straightness of the
rods shall be checked once on each new site and at least every
20 penetration tests at that site. At the test site, the rate of
blows, the height of fall, the friction free fall of the hammer, the
proper condition of the anvil and the mechanical release devices
shall be checked for satisfactory operation which is to be
ensured for the whole test series. In addition, the proper
functioning of the recording device has to be checked in case
automatic recording equipment is used..
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test
DCPT Test procedure
2. Test preparation (Dynamic probing test equipment shall be set
up with the penetrometer vertical, and in such a way that there
will be no displacement during testing. The inclination of the
driving mechanism and the driving rod projecting from the
ground shall not deviate by more than 2 % from the vertical.
3. Test execution (The penetrometer shall be continuously
driven into the ground. The driving rate shall be kept between 15
and 30 blows per minute. A casing may be sometimes used with
the same purpose.
The number of blows shall be recorded every 100 mm
penetration for the DPL, DPM and DPH and every 100 mm or 200
mm penetration for the DPSH.
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test
DCPT Test procedure
4. Influencing factors (Geotechnical or equipment related factors
can influence the selection and operation of the equipment and
the results of the tests.

5. Safety requirements (National safety regulations shall be

followed; e.g. regulations for:

 personal health- and safety equipment;

 clean air, if working in confined spaces;
 ensuring the safety of the equipment
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test
Result interpretation
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test
Result interpretation
 Perform in situ tests
Dynamic Cone penetration Test/ Dynamic probing Test
Result interpretation
Determination of bearing resistance

qd (kPa)=M2H*N/(A*e(M+P))
Where:
qd= resistance to the tip (kPa)
M(kN)=Weight of hammer (the striking mass)
=(10.269*10)/1000=102.69N=0.10269kN
H(m)= Drop Height=50cm =0.5m
A(m2) = section of the tip=10.287cm2 =10.287m2/10000=0.0010287m2
P(kN)=Weight of the mass struck(anvil, tip,rods)=6.566*10N=0.06566kN
e(m)=driving=10cm=0.1m
N=number of shots to reach the sinking (N: variable)
 Review questions for LU 1
1. Define soil investigation
2. Why is soil investigation needed?
3. Enumerate different methods of sampling soil
4. Waht are the methods of fileld soil testing
5. The observed standard penetration test value in normally
consolidated sand was 45 at a rod depth below the anvil of 8.5 m
with density index of 50%. The average effective unit weight of the
soil is 9.69kN/m3. The other data given are measured energy = 450J,
and Vertical stress of 45Mpa. Determine the corrected SPT value for
standard energy.
 Review questions for LU 1
6. For the corrected N values in Ex. 5, determine the (a) relative
density, and (b) the angle of friction.

7. For the corrected values of N given in Ex. 5, determine the

unconfined compressive strength qu in a clay deposit.
 Review questions for LU 1 (Cont’d)

8. The observed light weight dynamic probing test value in normally

consolidated sand was 35 at 10 cm from the ground level, 32 at
20cm, 27 at 30cm, 22 at 40cm, 29 at 50cm, 33 at 60cm, 37 at 70cm,
42 at 80cm, 45 at 90cm, 50 at 100cm. Find soil resistance at every
10cm deep from ground level and draw its corresponding curve.
Thank you