Department of Education - District of Rosario

Virtual Science Investigatory Project &

Science Innovation Expo Write Shop

Webinar on Research
Design and Sampling
MR. RYAN S. CUTAMORA
LEARNING SERVICE PROVIDER
Teacher III, Angelo Levardo Loyola Senior High School
District of Carmona

19 May 2021 @ 08:00 am via Google Meet

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the webinar, participants should be able to:
1. define research design;
2. cite characteristics of a good research design;
3. differentiate quantitative and qualitative research
designs;
4. describe sampling;
5. compute sampling size using Slovin’s formula; and
6. distinguish probability and non-probability sampling
techniques.
Learning Content:
I. Research Design
II. Types of Research Designs
A. Quantitative Methods
B. Qualitative Methods
III. Describing Sample Size
IV. Types of Sampling Techniques
A. Probability Sampling
B. Non-probability Sampling
Research Design
Research Design
• Design is a set of instructions for the researcher, to gather
and analyze data in certain ways that will control who and
what are to be studied.
• Thus, the choice of design is made when the question is
finalized.
• The research design refers to the overall strategy that you
choose to integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively
address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for
the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
Research Design
• Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can
vary considerably, but any sound design will do the following
things:
1. identify the research problem clearly and justify its
selection;
2. review previously published literature associated with the
problem area;
3. clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses central to the
problem selected;
Research Design
4. effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an
adequate test of the hypotheses and explain how such
data will be obtained; and
5. describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to
the data in determining whether or not the hypotheses are
true or false.
Characteristics of a Research Design
1. The setting in which the research occurs
a) Laboratory Studies
b) Field Studies
2. Timing of data collection
a) Prospective or Longitudinal studies
b) Retrospective, ex post facto or historical studies
c) Cross-sectional
3. The subjects to be included in the research
a) sample size or number of subjects in the study
b) method used to collect the data
c) researcher’s plan for communicating the findings
 Types of
Quantitative
Research Design
Experimental Design
• Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific
approach using two sets of variables.
• The central characteristic is manipulating the independent
variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable.
• The classical experimental designs consist of the
experimental group and the control group.
Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/control-and-experimental-group-differences-606113
Validity
• Internal validity indicates
whether the independent
variables was the sole cause
of the change in the
dependent variable.
• External validity involves
the extent to which the
results of a study can be
generalized beyond the
sample.
Source: https://www.verywellmind.com/internal-
and-external-validity-4584479
Controlling for Threats to Internal Validity
1. History
2. Maturation
3. Statistical Regression
4. Selection
5. Experimental Mortality
6. Testing
7. Instrumentation
8. Design contamination
Controlling for Threats to External Validity
1. Unique program features
2. Effects of Selection
3. Effects of Setting
4. Effects of History
5. Effects of Testing
6. Reactive effects of experimental arrangements
Let us remember!!!
O1 - Pretest
O2 - Post test
X - Intervention or treatment
R - Randomization
C - Control group
A. Pre-Experimental
• A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after
implementing factors of cause and effect. You’ll conduct this
research to understand whether further investigation is
necessary for these particular groups.
• It applies to experimental designs with least internal validity.
A.1. One-Shot Case Design
• A group, or various groups,
are kept under observation
after implementing factors
of cause and effect.
• You’ll conduct this research
to understand whether
further investigation is
necessary for these
particular groups.
Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
Example of One-Shot Case Study

X O2
Bully Students Counseling Observation
A.2. One Group Pretest Post Test Design
• A one group pretest post
test design is a type of
research design that is
most often utilized by
behavioral researchers to
determine the effect of a
treatment or intervention
on a given sample.

Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
Example of One Group Pretest Post Test
Design

O1 X O2
Primary School Achievement
Diagnostic Test Praising
Children Test
A.3. Static Group Comparison
•A group that has
experienced some
treatment is compared with
one that has not.
• Observed differences
between the two groups
are assumed to be a result
of the treatment.

Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
Example of Static Group Comparison

X O2
Group A Rehearsal Performance

C O2
Group B Performance
B. Quasi-Experimental
• Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to
establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.
• However, unlike a true experiment, a quasi-experiment does
not rely on random assignment. Instead, subjects are
assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.
B.1. Non-randomized Control Group Design
• A quasi-experimental design
aims to establish a cause-
and-effect relationship
between an independent and
dependent variable.
• However, unlike a true
experiment, a quasi-
experiment does not rely on
random assignment. Instead,
subjects are assigned to Source:
groups based on non-random https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
criteria.
Example of Non-randomized Control Group
Design

O1 X O2
Collaborative
Group A Pretest Learning Post Test

C O1 O2
Group B Pretest Post Test
B.2. Interrupted Time Series Design
• A time series is a set of
measurements taken at
intervals over a period of
time.
• In an interrupted time series-
design, a time series like this
one is “interrupted” by a
treatment.

Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
Example of Interrupted Time Series Design

Source: https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/quasi-experimental-research/
C. True Experimental
• True experimental research relies on statistical analysis to
prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate
form of research.
• Of the types of experimental design, only true design can
establish a cause-effect relationship within a group.
• In a true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:
1. There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to
changes, and an Experimental Group, which will
experience the changed variables.
2. A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
3. Random distribution
C.1. Post Test Only Control Group Design
• This is a research design in
which there are at least two
groups, one of which does
not receive a treatment or
intervention, and data are
collected on the outcome
measure after the treatment
or intervention.
• The group that does not
receive the treatment or Source:
intervention of interest is the https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
control group.
C.1. Post Test Only Control Group Design
• The general process for this design is that:
1. two or more groups are formed;
2. the treatment or intervention is administered;
3. data are collected after the treatment or intervention has
been administered, commonly using a behavioral,
cognitive, or psychological assessment; and
4. the data are compared between groups to determine
whether the treatment or intervention was effective.
 Example of Post Test Only Control Group
Design
R X O2
Self-Awareness
50 teachers Dance Workshop
Questionnaire

100
randomly
selected
teachers
R C O2
Self-Awareness
50 teachers Questionnaire
C.2. Pretest Post Test Control Group Design
• A type of true experimental
design where test units are
randomly allocated to an
experimental group and a
control group.
• Both groups are measured
before and after the
experimental group is
exposed to a treatment.
Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
 Example of Pretest Post Test Only Control
Group Design
R O1 X O2
Self-
Self-Awreness Dance
50 teachers Questionnaire Workshop
Awareness
Questionnaire

100
randomly
selected
teachers
R O1 C O2
Self- Self-
50 teachers Awareness Awareness
Questionnaire
Questionnaire
C.3. Solomon Four Group Design
• It attempts to take into
account the influence of
pretesting on subsequent
posttest results.
• Some research designs
include a pretest, which is
taken before exposure to a
treatment, and a posttest,
which is administered after
exposure to a treatment. Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/experimental-
research-38847004
C.3. Solomon Four Group Design
• Researchers employ a pretest-posttest design in order to
demonstrate that exposure to a treatment led to differences
between the pretest and posttest scores.
 Example of Solomon Four Group Design
R O1 X O2
25 teachers Self-Awareness Self-Awareness
Questionnaire Dance Workshop
(E1) Questionnaire

25 teacher Self-Awareness
Dance Workshop
100 (E2) Questionnaire
randomly
selected
teachers
25 teachers Self-Awareness Self-Awareness
Questionnaire Questionnaire
(C1)

25 teachers Self-Awareness
(C2) Questionnaire
C.4. Factorial Design
• Factorial design is a type of
research methodology that
allows for the investigation of
the main and interaction
effects between two or more
independent variables and on
one or more outcome
variable(s).

Source: https://magoosh.com/statistics/factorial-
design-basics-for-statistics/
Example of Factorial Design

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
264193674_A_Randomized_Longitudinal_Factorial_Design_to_Assess_Malaria_Vector_C
ontrol_and_Disease_Management_Interventions_in_Rural_Tanzania/figures?
C.5. Randomized Block Design
• A randomized block design is
an experimental design
where the experimental units
are in groups called blocks.
• The treatments are randomly
allocated to the experimental
units inside each block.
• When all treatments appear
at least once in each block,
we have a completely Source: https://conjointly.com/kb/randomized-block-

randomized block design. designs/

Example of Randomized Block Design

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/manumelwin/randomized-complete-block-design-dr-
manu-melwin-joy-school-of-management-studies-cochin-university-of-science-and-
technology
C.6. Crossover Design
• A crossover design is a
repeated measurements
design such that each
experimental unit (patient)
receives different treatments
during the different time
periods, i.e., the patients
cross over from one
treatment to another during
the course of the trial.
Source: https://www.ebmconsult.com/articles/cross-over-
study-design
Example of Crossover Design

Source:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
281173748_Design_Analysis_and_Reporting_of_Crossover_Trials_for_Inclusion_in_a_M
eta-Analysis/figures?lo=1&utm_source=google&utm_medium=organic
Quasi Experimental vs. True Experimental

Source: https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quasi-experimental-design/#:~:text=Like%20a%20true
%20experiment%2C%20a,based%20on%20non%2Drandom%20criteria.
Non-Experimental Design
• Non-experimental research is usually descriptive or
correlational, which means that you are either describing a
situation or phenomenon simply as it stands, or you are
describing a relationship between two or more variables, all
without any interference from the researcher.
Descriptive Design
• Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically
describe a population, situation or phenomenon.
• It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not
why questions.
• A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of
research methods to investigate one or more variables.
Characteristics of Descriptive Research
1. It ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case
study.
2. It gives either a quantitative or qualitative, or both,
description of the general characteristics of the group or
case under study.
3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized
4. study of conditions at different periods of time may be made
and the change that took place between the periods may be
evaluated for any value it gives.
5. Comparison of the characteristics of two groups may be
made to determine their similarities and differences.
Characteristics of Descriptive Research
6. The variables involved in the study are not usually
controlled.
7. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for
purposes of comparison and verification.
Types of Descriptive Research Methods
1. Observational Method
• The most effective method to conduct this research, and
researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative
observations.
• A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data,
which is primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests
“associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.”
• Results of quantitative observation are derived using
statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies
observation of any entity associated with a numeric value
such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc.
Types of Descriptive Research Methods
Example of Observational Method
Types of Descriptive Research Methods
2. Case Study
• It involves in-depth research and study of individuals or
groups. It leads to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of
studying a phenomenon.
• However, case studies should not be used to determine cause
and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because
there could be a bias on the researcher’s part.
• The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of
conducting descriptive research is that there could be an
atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to
weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.
Types of Descriptive Research Methods
Example of Case Study
Types of Descriptive Research Methods
3. Survey
• In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or
questionnaires or polls.
• They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback
from respondents.
• A study to gather useful data should have the right survey
questions.
• It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and
close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted
online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive
research where the sample size is enormous.
Types of Descriptive Research Methods
Example of Survey Research
Correlational Research Design
• A correlational research design measures a relationship
between two variables without the researcher controlling
either of them. It aims to find out whether there is either:
Correlational Research Design

Example of Correlation Research Design

Developmental Research Design
• Developmental research designs are techniques used
particularly in lifespan development research.
• When we are trying to describe development and change, the
research designs become especially important because we
are interested in what changes and what stays the same with
age.
Developmental Research Design

Example of Developmental Research Design

Comparative Research Design
• Comparative research, simply put, is the act of comparing two
or more things with a view to discovering something about
one or all of the things being compared.
• This technique often utilizes multiple disciplines in one study.
Comparative Research Design

Example of Comparative Research Design

Types of Qualitative
Research Design
Historical Method
• The purpose of a historical research design is to collect,
verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish
facts that defend or refute a hypothesis.
• Describes what occurred in the past.
• Depends upon data observed by other rather than
investigator.
 Examples of Studies with
Historical Research Method
Ethnographic Method
• Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where
researchers observe and/or interact with a study’s participants
in their real-life environment.
• The aim of an ethnographic study within a usability project is
to get ‘under the skin’ of a design problem (and all its
associated issues)
 Examples of Studies with
Ethnographic Research Method
Grounded Theory
• Grounded theory is a research method concerned with the
generation of theory, which is 'grounded' in data that has been
systematically collected and analysed.
• It is used to uncover such things as social relationships and
behaviours of groups, known as social processes.
 Examples of Studies with
Grounded Theory Research Method
Phenomenological Method
• A form of qualitative research that focuses on the study of an
individual's lived experiences within the world.
• It described as an approach in sociology that is based on
human character as the subject matter of the discipline.
• It is also described as an interpretative, intuitive, and dialectic
approach.
 Examples of Studies with
Phenomenological Research Method
One-Shot Case Design

One Group Pre-test

Post test Design
Static Group

Pre-experimental
Comparison

Non-randomized
Control Group Design

Quasi-
Interrupted Time Series

Experimental
Design

Post Test Only

Control Group Design
Pretest Post Test
Experimental

Control Group Design

Solomon Four Group
Design

Factorial Design
True Experimental

Randomized Block
Design
Quantitative Methods

Crossover Design

Observational

Case Study Descriptive

Research Designs

Survey

Correlational
Non-experimental

Developmental

Comparative
Types of Research Design

Historical
Research

Ethnographic
Study

Grounded
Theory

Phenomenolo
Qualitative Methods

gy
Describing Sample
Size
Terms to remember…
• A population (N) is the entire group that you want to draw
conclusions about.
• A sample (n) is a group of people, objects, or items that are
taken from a larger population for measurement.
• The sampling procedure is a method of choosing part of a
population to use to test hypotheses about the entire
population. It is also used to choose the number of
participants, interviews, or work samples to use in the
assessment process.
Source: https://www.omniconvert.com/what-is/sample-size/
Population vs. Sample

Source: https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/population-vs-sample/#:~:text=A%20population%20is
%20the%20entire,t%20always%20refer%20to%20people.
When to choose or collect data?
• Populations are used when your research question requires,
or when you have access to, data from every member of the
population. Usually, it is only straightforward to collect data
from a whole population when it is small, accessible and
cooperative.

Example:
A high school administrator wants to analyze the final exam
scores of all graduating seniors to see if there is a trend.
Since they are only interested in applying their findings to the
graduating seniors in this high school, they use the whole
population dataset.
When to choose or collect data?
• But when your population is large in size, geographically
dispersed, or difficult to contact, it’s necessary to use a
sample. With statistical analysis, you can use sample data to
make estimates or test hypotheses about population data.
Example:
You want to study political attitudes in young people. Your
population is the 300,000 undergraduate students in the
Netherlands. Because it’s not practical to collect data from all
of them, you use a sample of 300 undergraduate volunteers
from three Dutch universities – this is the group who will
complete your online survey
Reasons for sampling:
1. Necessity - sometimes it’s simply not possible to study the
whole population due to its size or inaccessibility.
2. Practicality - it’s easier and more efficient to collect data
from a sample.
3. Cost-effectiveness - there are fewer participant, laboratory,
equipment, and researcher costs involved.
4. Manageability - storing and running statistical analyses on
smaller datasets is easier and reliable.
Population parameter vs. sample statistic
• When you collect data from a population or a sample, there
are various measurements and numbers you can calculate
from the data.
• A parameter is a measure that describes the whole
population while a statistic is a measure that describes the
sample.
• You can use estimation or hypothesis testing to estimate how
likely it is that a sample statistic differs from the population
parameter.
Population parameter vs. sample statistic
Example:
In your study of students’ political attitudes, you ask your
survey participants to rate themselves on a scale from 1, very
liberal, to 7, very conservative. You find that most of your
sample identifies as liberal – the mean rating on the political
attitudes scale is 3.2.
You can use this statistic, the sample mean
of 3.2, to make a scientific guess about the
population parameter – that is, to infer the
mean political attitude rating of all
undergraduate students in the Netherlands.
Sampling Error
• A sampling error is the difference between a population parameter
and a sample statistic. In your study, the sampling error is the
difference between the mean political attitude rating of your sample
and the true mean political attitude rating of all undergraduate
students in the Netherlands.
• Sampling errors happen even when you use a randomly selected
sample. This is because random samples are not identical to the
population in terms of numerical measures like means and standard
deviations.
• Because the aim of scientific research is to generalize findings from
the sample to the population, you want the sampling error to be low.
You can reduce sampling error by increasing the sample size.
 General Rule in Sampling

The larger the sample size,

the smaller the sampling
error will be.
Slovin’s Formula
• It was formulated by Robert Slovin in 1960.
• It is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the population
size (N) and a margin of error (e).
• Below is the formula:
n=
where:
n – sample size
N – total population
e – margin of error
Illustrative Example No. 1
A researcher wants to conduct a survey. If the population of
a big university is 35 000, find the sample size if the margin of
error is 5%.
Given: N = 35 000
e = 5%
n=?
Formula: n=
Solution: n= n= n = 395
n= n=
Illustrative Example No. 2
Suppose you plan to conduct a study among 1 500 Grade 11
students enrolled in the STEM Strand. How many respondents
are needed using a margin of error of 2%?
Given: N = 1 500
e = 2%
n=?
Formula: n=
Solution: n= n= n = 938
n= n=
Types of Sampling
Techniques
Sampling Procedures
• Sampling is a method that allows researchers to infer
information about a population based on results from a subset
of the population, without having to investigate every individual.
• Reducing the number of individuals in a study reduces the cost
and workload, and may make it easier to obtain high quality
information, but this has to be balanced against having a large
enough sample size with enough power to detect a true
association.
• There are several different sampling techniques available, and
they can be subdivided into two groups: probability sampling
and non-probability sampling.
Probability Sampling
• In probability sampling, you start with a complete sampling
frame of all eligible individuals from which you select your
sample.
• In this way, all eligible individuals have a chance of being
chosen for the sample, and you will be more able to
generalise the results from your study.
• Probability sampling methods tend to be more time-
consuming and expensive than non-probability sampling.
1. Simple Random Sampling
• In this case, each individual is chosen entirely by chance and
each member of the population has an equal chance, or
probability, of being selected.
Example:
Using a random number generator to randomly select 100
participants from a population of 5 000 elementary students
wit LD in a state.
2. Systematic Random Sampling
• Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling
frame.
• The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size.
If you need a sample size n from a population of size x, you
should select every x/nth individual for the sample.

Example:
Selecting every 50 students from an alphabetized list of the
population of 5 000 elementary students with LD in a state.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
• In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups
(or strata) who all share a similar characteristic.
• It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement
of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we
want to ensure representation from all the subgroups.

Example:
Randomly selecting students with LD from different ethnic /
racial groups to ensure a diverse sample.
4. Clustered Sampling
• In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used
as the sampling unit, rather than individuals.
• The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters,
which are randomly selected to be included in the study.

Example:
Using random number generator to randomly select 30
elementary schools from which to invite students with LD to
comprise the study sample.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Probability Sampling
Sampling Advantages Disadvantages
Design
Simple • Requires little advance • May not capture specific groups
Random knowledge of population • May not be efficient
Systematic • High precision • Ordering of elements in sampling
Random • Easy to analyze data and frame may create biases
compute sampling errors • May not capture specific groups
• May not be efficient
Stratified • Captures specific groups • Requires advance knowledge of
Random • Disproportionate sampling population
possible • More complex to analyze data
• Highest precision and compute sampling errors
Cluster • Lower field costs • More complex to analyze data
• Enables sampling of group is and compute sampling errors
individuals not available • Lowest precision
Non-Probability Sampling
• In non-probability sampling, you do not start with a complete
sampling frame, so some individuals have no chance of being
selected.
• Consequently, you cannot estimate the effect of sampling
error and there is a significant risk of ending up with a non-
representative sample which produces non-generalisable
results.
• However, non-probability sampling methods tend to be
cheaper and more convenient, and they are useful for
exploratory research and hypothesis generation.
1. Convenience Sampling
• It is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because
participants are selected based on availability and willingness
to take part.
Example:
Aikmana, Mina and Graham used undergraduate students in
an experimental study examining people’s perceptions of the
healthiness of foods depicted in various ways, including a
food’s nutritional information.
2. Quota Sampling
• It is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given
a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit.

• Example:
An interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult
men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys
so that they could interview them about their television
viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally
represent the characteristics of the underlying population.
3. Purposive Sampling
• This technique relies on the judgement of the researcher when choosing
who to ask to participate.
• Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit
their needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain
characteristics.
• This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public
for opinions and in qualitative research.

Example:
A team of researchers wanted to understand what the significance of
white skin—whiteness—means to white people, so they asked white
people about this. This is a homogenous sample created on the basis of
race.
4. Snowball Sampling
• This method is commonly used in social sciences when
investigating hard-to-reach groups.
• Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects
known to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling
snowball.

Example:
When carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst
intravenous drug users, participants may be asked to
nominate other users to be interviewed.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling
Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
Design
Convenience • Least expensive • Selection bias
• Least time-consuming • Sample not representative
• Most convenient • Not recommended by descriptive
or casual research.
Quota • Sample can be controlled for • Selection bias
certain characteristics • No assurance
Purposive • Low-cost • Does not allow generalization
• Convenient • Subjective
• Not time-consuming
• Ideal for exploratory research
design
Snowball • Can estimate rare • Time consuming
characteristics
Types of Sampling Procedures
Bias in Sampling
There are five important potential sources of bias that should
be considered when selecting a sample, irrespective of the
method used. Sampling bias may be introduced when:

1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from

2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if
they are difficult to contact
4. There are low response rates
5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example,
if it excludes people who have recently moved to an area)
References
• https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185902
• https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/population-vs-sample/#:~:text=A
%20population%20is%20the%20entire,t%20always%20refer%20to%20people.
• https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/edu/power-pouvoir/ch6/sampling-echantillonage/
5214807-eng.htm#:~:text=As%20a%20general%20rule%2C%20the,size%20of
%20well%2Dknown%20surveys.
• https://prudencexd.weebly.com/#:~:text=%2D%20is%20used%20to%20calculate
%20the,margin%20of%20error%20(e).&text=%2DIt%20is%20computed%20as
%20n,%2F%20(1%2BNe2).&text=When%20taking%20statistical%20samples%2C
%20sometimes,and%20sometimes%20nothing%20at%20all.
• https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1a-
epidemiology/methods-of-sampling-population