Module 3

introduction
It is necessary for a researcher to design a methodology for the problem chosen. One
should note that even if the method considered in two problems are same the
methodology may be different. It is important for the researcher to know not only the
research methods necessary for the research under taken but also the methodology. For
example, a researcher not only needs to know how to calculate mean, variance and
distribution function for a set of data, how to find a solution of a physical system described
by mathematical model, how to determine the roots of algebraic equations and how to
apply a particular method but also need to know
(i) which is a suitable method for the chosen problem?,
ii) what is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?,
(iii) what is the efficiency of the method?
and so on. Consideration of these aspects constitute a research methodology.

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 Provide a description in detail of
method or procedures:
1. Procedures
2. Data Analysis

Objectives
 LOOKING BACK

What is the educated

prediction that provides an
explanation for an observed
event and gives direction to
the research study?
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 Let’s Get Started

• Research Activity – writing a research plan or project summary.

• Describe the following in detail:

❑ Procedures
❑ Data Analysis

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• Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in
research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are
termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-
neutral.
• Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of
studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which
researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting
phenomena are called research methodology.
• Procedures in a research methodology detail all procedures and experimental
design including methods for data collection.
• Data Analysis describes the procedures you will use to analyze the data/results.

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 • VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH
Whenever a scientific problem is to be solved there are several important steps to follow.
1. Selection of a research topic
2. Definition of a research problem
3. Literature survey and reference collection
4. Assessment of current status of the topic chosen
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Research design
7. Actual investigation
8. Data analysis
9. Interpretation of result

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10. Report
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• Design Approach
The overall design of a research project consists of its methods and
procedures. Research design can be described as Qualitative or
Quantitative in approach. It is also possible to have a mixture of the two
approaches, both in overall design and in the specific methods used in the
investigation.

• There are three basic types of experimental research designs. These

include pre-experimental designs, true experimental designs, and quasi-
experimental designs.

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 True experimental designs
• True experimental designs are characterized by the random selection of participants and
the random assignment of the participants to groups in the study. The researcher also has
complete control over the extraneous variables.

✓ Post-test Only Design

✓ Pretest-Post-test Only Design
✓ Solomon Four Group Design
✓ Factorial Design
✓ Randomized Block Design
✓ Crossover Design (also known as Repeat Measures Design)

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 True experimental designs
• Post-test Only Design – This type of design has two randomly
assigned groups: an experimental group and a control group. Neither
group is pretested before the implementation of the treatment. The
treatment is applied to the experimental group and the post-test is
carried out on both groups to assess the effect of the treatment or
manipulation. This type of design is common when it is not possible to
pretest the subjects.

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 True experimental designs
• Pretest-Post-test Only Design - The subjects are again randomly
assigned to either the experimental or the control group. Both groups
are pretested for the independent variable. The experimental group
receives the treatment and both groups are post-tested to examine
the effects of manipulating the independent variable on the
dependent variable.

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 True experimental designs
• Solomon Four Group Design – Subjects are randomly assigned
into one of four groups. There are two experimental groups and two
control groups. Only two groups are pretested. One pretested group
and one unprotested group receive the treatment. All four groups will
receive the post-test. The effects of the dependent variable originally
observed are then compared to the effects of the independent
variable on the dependent variable as seen in the post-test results.

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 True experimental designs
• Factorial Design – The researcher manipulates two or more
independent variables (factors) simultaneously to observe their effects
on the dependent variable. This design allows for the testing of two or
more hypotheses in a single project. One example would be a
researcher who wanted to test two different protocols for burn
wounds with the frequency of the care being administered in 2, 4, and
6 hour increments.

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 True experimental designs
• Randomized Block Design – This design is used when there are
inherent differences between subjects and possible differences in
experimental conditions. If there are a large number of experimental
groups, the randomized block design may be used to bring some
homogeneity to each group.

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 True experimental designs
• Crossover Design (also known as Repeat Measures Design) – Subjects
in this design are exposed to more than one treatment and the subjects are
randomly assigned to different orders of the treatment. The groups
compared have an equal distribution of characteristics and there is a high
level of similarity among subjects that are exposed to different conditions.
Crossover designs are excellent research tools, however, there is some
concern that the response to the second treatment or condition will be
influenced by their experience with the first treatment. In this type of
design, the subjects serve as their own control groups.

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 • In your research proposal, you will also discuss how you will conduct an
analysis of your data. By the time you get to the analysis of your data, most
of the really difficult work has been done. It's much more difficult to define
the research problem, develop and implement a sampling plan, develop a
design structure, and determine your measures. If you have done this work
well, the analysis of the data is usually a fairly straightforward affair.

• Before you look at the various ways of analyzing and discussing data, you
need to review the differences between qualitative research/quantitative
research and qualitative data/quantitative data.

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 Why do I have to analyze data?
The purpose of analyzing data is to obtain usable and useful
information. The analysis, regardless of whether the data is
qualitative or quantitative, may:

✓IDENTIFY THE
✓ DESCRIBE AND
DIFFERENCE
SUMMARIZE THE BETWEEN VARIABLES
DATA. ✓ COMPARE
VARIABLES.

✓IDENTIFY ✓ FORECAST
RELATIONSHIPS OUTCOMES
BETWEEN VARIABLES
 oWhen it comes to data analysis, some believe that statistical
techniques are only applicable for quantitative data. This is not so.
There are many statistical techniques that can be applied to
qualitative data, such as ratings scales, that has been generated by
a quantitative research approach. Even if a qualitative study uses
no quantitative data, there are many ways of analyzing qualitative
data.

oWhen you are done, you will also need to address concerns about
the reliability and validity of your possible results

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oReliability
oReliability is the extent to which the same
finding will be obtained if the research
was repeated at another time by another
researcher. If the same finding can be
obtained again, the instrument is
consistent or reliable.

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o Validity
o Validity is understood best by the
question: ‘Are we measuring what we o No procedure is
think we are measuring?’ This is very perfectly reliable,
difficult to assess. The following but if a data
questions are typical of those asked to collection
assess validity issues: procedure is
➢Has the researcher gained full access unreliable then it is
to the knowledge and meanings of also invalid. The
data? other problem is
➢Would experienced researchers use that even if it is
the same questions or methods? reliable, then that
does not mean it is
necessarily valid.
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o Triangulation
o Triangulation is crosschecking of data using multiple data
sources or using two or more methods of data collection.
There are different types of triangulation, including:

o • time triangulation – longitudinal studies

o • methodological triangulation – same method at different
times or different methods on same object of study
o • investigator triangulation – uses more than one
researcher.

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o Sampling error
o Sampling error is a measure of the difference between the sample
results and the population parameters being measured. It can
never be eliminated, but if random sampling is used, sampling
error occurs by chance but is reduced as the sample size increases.
When non-random sampling is used this is not the case.

o Basic questions we need to ask to assess a sample are:

o • Is the sample random and representative of the population?
o • Is the sample small or large?

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oNon-sampling error
oAll errors, other than sampling errors, are non-sampling
errors and can never be eliminated. The many sources of
non-sampling errors include the following:
o• Researcher error – unclear definitions; reliability and
validity issues; data analysis problems, for example,
missing data.
o• Interviewer error – general approach; personal
interview techniques; recording responses.
o• Respondent error – inability to answer; unwilling;
cheating; not available; low response rate.

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 • A research method is a systematic plan for conducting research.
Sociologists draw on a variety of both qualitative and quantitative
research methods, including experiments, survey research, participant
observation, and secondary data. Quantitative methods aim to classify
features, count them, and create statistical models to test hypotheses and
explain observations. Qualitative methods aim for a complete, detailed
description of observations, including the context of events and
circumstances.
•
• In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to
critically evaluate a study's overall validity and reliability.

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 “Research is much
concerned with proper
fact finding, analysis
and evaluation.”
thank you