research approach

research methods
Research design,

CpSc 6612: Research Design

research methodology techniques

Reference:
1. Choosing your methods [Research Design]:
Berndtsson, et.al. (2008)-chap 8
2. Chapter 3 The Research Process of Jan Recker (2013)
3. Chap 3 (design), 4,8 (sampling) ,5 (measurement &
scale) of Kothari (2014)

Research question Objectives (general, Plan of action

(Hypothesis) specific) (research design)
 Parts of Research design
• the sampling design (Lecture Part-2)
– deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study;
• the observational design (Lecture Part-1)
– relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
• the statistical design [QUAN] (Lecture-Part-3)
– concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed; and
• the operational design (Student work)
– deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.

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 Outline
• Relationships of aim, objectives, methods
• Addressing the issue of validity and reliability
• Research design
– Observation, Induction, and Deduction
– Selecting a Research Design
• Selecting Research methodology

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Relationships: aim, objectives,
methods • Topic
• Objective
statement
• Design/method

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 Addressing validity and reliability

• Research concept, Research variable, measurability

• Validity:
– is the relationship between what you intend to measure
(or examine, or develop) and what you actually measure
(or examine, or develop).
• Reliability:
– the accuracy of your method (e.g. implementation,
questionnaire, interview style) in measuring (or examining,
or developing), i.e. how robust your method is.
• Threats: researcher’s bias, influence to the research
setting

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 Research Design
• ….is the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data.
• … ought to be relevant and economical.
• ….. research planning decisions
• ………. requiring compromise and trade-offs between
the demands of research resources, time, quality, and
data access.

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 Research Process:
Observation, Induction, and Deduction
• …. are common themes in all types of research designs
• Observation concerns the discovery of things
encountered in common experience.
– …. the desire to understand these observable things by
discovering some systematic order in them. To explore
and to describe. (exploratory/descriptive)
– aim of carefully observing and documenting previously
unknown or under-studied phenomena of interest and
scoping the magnitude, extent, or boundaries of the
phenomena.
• lead to the formulation of speculative propositions or
theories.

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 … induction and deduction
• Induction is reasoning that involves
– moving from a set of specific facts to a general
conclusion or from specific observations to
broader generalisations and theories.
– hypothesis construction, on account of the fact
that conclusions are offered based on educated
predictions.
– Case study research is a good example of
induction

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 …. Induction, deduction
• Inductive reasoning, ….

I studied phenomenon X in Y amount of cases and I have always found the

particular relationship/phenomena Z to be at work. Hence, the evidence
collected in my observation lead me to formulate the tentative proposition
that Z is related to X in this or that way.

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 …. deduction
• … involves deriving arguments as logical
consequences of a set of more general
premises.
• …. used to predict the results of the
hypotheses or propositions.
• … can be viewed as an attempt to test
concepts and patterns known from theory
using new empirical data.

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Observation, Induction, and Deduction
• Each, individually, are often incomplete
• Sound research design, therefore, should strive to
employ combinations of observation, induction, and
deduction.
• That way we can achieve a meaningful mix of
– exploration – where we build an understanding of the
phenomena that interests us,
– rationalisation – where we begin to make sense of the
puzzle or problem that interests us, and
– validation – where we appropriately subject our emergent
or developed theory to rigorous examination.

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 Observation, Induction, and Deduction
exploration,
rationalisation,
and validation
is that they are not
necessarily related
in a linear or
temporal manner.
Instead, good
research typically
moves back and
forth between
them, in the figure.

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 Selecting a Research Design
• Your research design is decided on the level of
combination required from observation,
induction and deduction (focus). (does it involve
an appropriate way to rationalise? To validate? To
explore?).
• Research design is the outcome of a process with
many choices. These choices are not trivial and
their implications regarding what the potential
and likely research outcomes will be are
significant.

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 Research design decision parameters

Note that by no means are these
decision binary (either-or) in
nature; rather, they exist as two
key points along a continuum of
choices
The key benchmark against which
your research design must be aligned
is the problem statement as specified
in the research question(s).

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Other considerations of research
design

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 Research methodology
• Hand in hand with the development of a
research design is the selection of the
appropriate research methodology.
• Some argue that the selection of a research
methodology is the most important design
choice in the research process.
• Research Methodology is a term that
describes the strategy of inquiry used to
answer a specific research question.

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Research methodology: strategies of
inquiry

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 Research methodology: strategies of
inquiry
• How can we differentiate these strategies :
– Controllability
– Deductibility
– Repeatability
– Generalisability
– Explorability
– Complexity

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Research methodology: strategies of
inquiry

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Research methodology: strategies of
inquiry

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Lecture Part-2
SAMPLING DESIGN

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Technology
 Outline
• Sampling design - concept
• Steps in sampling process
• Sampling methods
• Determine sample size

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 Sampling design

• Remember, sample is a part or subset of

population/universe

Population of Interest

Sample
 Sampling design

• Sampling is a procedure used to gather people, place of

things
• The results for the sample are then used to make
estimates of the larger group

Population Sample

Parameter Statistic
 Sampling design
Census survey
• Entire population are studied
• Requires extremely high money,
material, time and labour
• Results are accurate and reliable
• No urgent results are obtained
Sample survey
• Representative samples are the
subject of the study
• Requires minimum cost, time and
labour
• Sometimes leads to inaccurate and
misleading results
• Helps to arrive at quick decision
for problems that requires urgent
decision
 Sampling design

• Two keys
1. Selecting the right people Sample
Population
 Have to be selected
scientifically so that
they are representative
of the population
This is bad
2. Selecting the right number
of the right people
 To minimize sampling
errors i.e. choosing the
wrong people by chance
Too large Too small
 Sampling design terminology

Population
– The entire group of people of interest from whom the
researcher needs to obtain information
Element (sampling unit)
– one unit from a population

Sampling
– The selection of a subset of the population
Sampling Frame
– Listing of population from which a sample is chosen
Sampling design terminology

Parameter
– The variable of interest
Statistic
– The information obtained from the sample about the
parameter
 Steps in Sampling Process

Define Population

Determine Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Procedure

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

• Simple Random Sampling • Convenience
• Stratified Sampling • Judgmental
• Cluster Sampling • Quota

Determine Appropriate
Sample Size

Execute Sampling Design

 Sampling design Define
Population
• It addresses the question “Ideally, who do you want to
survey?” i.e. those who have the information sought-
What are their characteristics. Who should be excluded?
– material type, gender, product use, those involve in
thesis work
– Geographic area
• It involves
– defining population units
– setting population boundaries
– Screening
 Sampling design Define
Population
• The Element individuals
families
seminar groups

• sampling Unit individuals over 20

families with 2 kids
seminar groups at HU university

• Extent individuals who have practiced “one”

families who practice business activities
seminar groups conducting laboratory study

• Timing Practiced over the last seven days

 Sampling design Determine the Sampling Frame

• Obtaining a “list” of population (how will you reach sample)

– Phone book

– Professional organizations

– Mailing list

– Map

• Problems with lists

– Omissions

– Ineligibles

– Duplications

• Procedures
– E.g. reclaimed land in the last two decades
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Two sampling methods :

• Probability sampling - equal chance of being included in the
sample (random)
• Non-probability sampling - unequal chance of being included
in the sample (non-random)
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Probability Sampling
– It is also called random sampling.
– Ensures information is obtained from a representative sample
of the population
– Sampling error can be computed
– Survey results can be projected to the population
– More expensive than non-probability samples
• Types of procedures
– Simple Random Sampling
– Stratified Sampling
– Cluster Sampling
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

– Population members are selected directly from the sampling
frame
– Equal probability of selection for every member (sample
size/population size)
– 400/10,000 = .04
– random number generators are handy for x/y selection

X
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Systematic random sample

• select k-th individual from gridded population
• lay out a line = transect, sample individual nearest the pre-
selected point

x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Systematic random sample

1. number the units in the population
from 1 to N
2. decide on the n (sample size) that
you want or need
3. k = N/n = the interval size
• randomly select an integer
between 1 to k

4. then take every kth unit

 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Stratified Sampling
– The chosen sample is forced to contain units from each of the
segments, or strata, of the population
• Steps:
– Population is divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive
strata based on an appropriate population characteristic. (e.g.
race, age, gender, slope , clay content , material quality and etc.)
– Simple random samples are then drawn from each stratum.
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Stratified random sample

• population is layered into strata and then we conduct random or
systematic sampling within each cell
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Cluster Sampling
– Clusters of population units are selected at random and then all
or some randomly chosen units in the selected clusters are
studied.

• Steps:
– Population is divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive
subgroups, or clusters. Ideally, each cluster adequately
represents the population.
– A simple random sample of a few clusters is selected.
– All or some randomly chosen units in the selected clusters are
studied.
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• When to use stratified sampling

– If primary research objective is to compare groups

• When to use cluster sampling

– When there is a list of clusters but not of individual population
members
– If there are substantial fixed costs associated with each data
collection location
 COMPARISION OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN
SAMPLING DESIGN DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Simple Random Each population Easy to implement with Requires a listing of

element has equal automatic dialing population elements.
chance of being selected [random digit dialing] More time to
into the sample. Sample and with computer implement. Use larger
drawn using random voice response system. sample sizes. Produces
number table/generator larger errors.
Expansive
Systematic Selects an element of Simple to design. Easier Periodicity within the
the population at a to use than Simple population may skew
beginning with a Random. the sample and result.
random start and Easy to determine If the population list has
following the sample sampling distribution of a monotonic trend, a
fraction selects every mean or proportion. biased estimate will
kth items Less expansive than result based on the start
simple random point.
Stratified Divides population into Researcher controls Increased error will
sub-populations or sample size in strata. result if subgroups are
strata and uses simple Increased statistical selected at different
random on each strata. efficiency. rates.
Results may be Provides data to Expansive.
weighted and combined represent and analyze Especially expansive if
subgroups. strata on the population
Enables use of different has to be created.
methods in strata.

Continued next page

COMPARISION OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN
[Continuation from previous page]
SAMPLING DESIGN DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Custer Population is divided Provides an unbiased Often lower statistical

into internally estimate of population efficiency [more errors
heterogeneous sub- parameter if properly due to sub group being
groups. Some are done. homogenous rather than
randomly selected for Economically more heterogeneous.
further study efficient than simple
random.
Lowest cost per sample,
especially with
geographic clusters.
Easy to do without
population lists
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Non-Probability Sampling
– information is obtained from a non-representative sample of the
population
– Sampling error can not be computed
– Survey results cannot be projected to the population
• Types of procedures
– Convenience
– Judgmental
– Quota
– Snowball Sampling
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Convenience Sampling
– A researcher's convenience forms the basis for selecting
a sample.
• people in my classes
• Land with some specific type of cover (e.g. water)
• Multistorey building in Hawassa city
• Judgement Sampling
– A researcher exerts some effort in selecting a sample
that seems to be most appropriate for the study.
 Sampling design Selecting a sampling design

• Snowball Sampling
– Selection of additional respondents is based on referrals from
the initial respondents.
• friends of friends
– Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations.
• Quota Sampling
– The population is divided into cells on the basis of relevant
control characteristics.
– A quota of sample units is established for each cell.
• 50 women, 50 men
– A convenience sample is drawn for each cell until the quota is
met.
(similar to stratified sampling)
 Good Sampling Design
• Sample design must
– result in a truly representative sample.
– be such which results in a small sampling error.
– be viable in the context of funds available for the
research study.
– be such so that systematic bias can be controlled
in a better way.
– Sample should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

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 Sample size determination
• Choosing n, which is an optimum size.
• Considerations:
– Nature of universe (homogenous/heterogenous)
– Number of classes proposed (a large sample if many
sub-groups)
– Nature of study (large n for survey, small n for
intensive and continuous study)
– Type of sampling (random sampling is superior)
– Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level
(large for higher accuracy/confidence)
– Finance (larger …costly)

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 Determining sample size
• whenever a sample study is made
– there arises some sampling error which can be
controlled by selecting a sample of adequate size.
• Researcher have to:
– specify the precision that he/she wants in respect
of his/her estimates concerning the population
parameters.

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 Sample size determination
• Read chap 8 of Kathari (2004) for usage of
formula to determine sample size (n).

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End of Unit-3