Overview of Sensors for

Robotics
Why do robots need sensors?
What is the angle of my arm?



internal information
Robotic Sensor Classification
 Proprioceptive Sensors (Internal Sensors)

• Measure internal state of system in the

environment
– Rotary position
– Linear position
– Velocity
– Acceleration
– Temperature
 Position Sensors
• Potentiometer

• LVDT

• Encoder

• Resolvers
 Potentiometer
It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft that can be either
angular (rotational) or linear (slider type) in its movement.

Wiper movement produces output voltage proportional to displacement.

Potentiometer
• VA = I R A

• But I = VS / (RA + RB)

• Therefore VA = VS RA / (RA +RB)

• As we know that R = ρ L / A, where ρ is

electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor
and A is area of cross section
• Advantages
– Low cost
– Easy to use

• Disadvantages
– Wear due to moving parts
– Low accuracy
– Low repeatability
– Range of movement is limited to physical size
of the potentiometer
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Works on the same principle as the AC transformer
LVDT
• When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in
one coil increases as the other decreases, causing the
output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum.

• This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.

• When the core moves in the other direction, the output

voltage also increases from zero to a maximum, but its
phase is opposite to that of the primary.

• The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the

distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which
is why the device is described as "linear".

• The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of the

displacement.
• Advantages
– rugged and reliable
– no physical electrical contact across the transducer
position sensing element. Hence, no frictional losses
– Low Power Consumption

• Disadvantages

– LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they

always require a setup to protect them from stray
magnetic fields.
– They are affected by vibrations and temperature.
Capacitive Sensor
Capacitive Sensor

Time Constant
 CAPACITIVE SENSOR
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is
primarily used to measure the linear displacements from few
millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.

• It consists of three plates, with the upper pair forming one

capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement
might take in two forms:

a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the

plate separation changes

b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.

• As the central plate moves near to top plate or
bottom one due to the movement of the
element/workpiece of which displacement is to
be measured, separation in between the plate
changes. This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)

• When C1 and C2 are connected to a Schering’s

bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance voltage
would be in proportional to displacement x.
Series and Parallel Capacitors
 APPLICATIONS

Proximity Sensing Liquid Level Sensing

 Optical Encoder
• An Optical Encoder is an electro-mechanical device
that converts the angular position of a shaft to a
digital code.
• Can be linear or rotary.

What are they used for?

 Provide information on angular position, speed, and
direction.
 The information is used for system control (e.g. motor
velocity feedback control).
 It is the most popular type of encoder.
 Optical Encoder parts

Light source: produces the light that

will “trigger” the photo detectors
during motion. Usually LEDs or IR
LEDs

Photodetector: electronic sensor

that reacts to light. Usually a
phototransistor or photodiode.

Code disk: has one or more tracks

with slits (windows) to allow light to
pass through.

Mask: collimates the beams of light

Optical Encoder parts

Shaft: mechanically attached to

the system we want to measure;
usually a motor.

Housing: protection from the

environment.

Electronic board: filters signal

into square wave used by
microcontroller.
Encoder for Position Measurement
 Types of Optical Encoders

• Two types of Optical Encoders based on method

of interpretation of the output:

1. Incremental Encoder
• Measure displacement relative to a reference point.

2. Absolute Encoder
• Measure absolute position.
• Advantages – A missed reading does not affect the next
reading. Only needs power on when taking a reading.
• Disadvantages – More expensive/complex.
Cost/complexity proportional to resolution/accuracy.
Incremental Encoder
 Incremental Optical Encoder: Dual channel
• The output has two lines of pulses (“A” and “B” channel)
• They are 90° offset in order to determine rotation
direction.
• This phasing between the two signals is called
quadrature.

Channel A Lo Hi Hi Lo Repetitive sequence

Channel B Lo Lo Hi Hi
Incremental Optical Encoder: Dual channel
 Encoder Resolution

Incremental Optical Encoder

• Resolution essentially depends on the number of

windows on the code disk
Resolution = 360/N
N = number of windows on code disk

Example:
What number of windows are needed on the code disk of an
incremental optical encoder to measure displacements of 1.5°?
Resolution =360° /N =1.5 ° → N = 240 windows

• BUT, we can increase resolution by using channels A

and B
 Absolute Encoder

Binary Gray Code

1. Every position of an absolute encoder is unique. Unlike an incremental

encoder, where position is determined by counting pulses from a zero mark
or home base, the absolute encoder reads a system of coded tracks to
establish position information. No two positions are alike.

2. Absolute encoders do not lose position when power is removed. Since each
position is unique, true position verification is available as soon as power is up.
It is not necessary to initialize the system by returning to home base.
Absolute Encoder
Absolute Encoder

33
 Absolute Disk Codes
• Example: 3 bit binary code
Angle Binary Decimal
Bit 0
0-45 000 0
Bit 1
45-90 001 1
Bit 2
90-135 010 2

135-180 011 3
Bit 0
180-225 100 4

Bit 1 225-270 101 5

270-315 110 6
Bit 2 315-360 111 7
 Problem with Binary Code
Angle Binary Decimal

• One angle shift results 0-45 000 0

in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1

• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

– 001 (start at 1) 135-180 011 3
– 000 (turn off bit 0)
180-225 100 4
– 010 (turn on bit 1)
225-270 101 5

270-315 110 6

315-360 111 7
 Problem with Binary Code
Angle Binary Decimal

• One degree shift results 0-45 000 0

in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1

• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

– 001 (start at 1) 135-180 011 3
– 000 (turn off bit 0)
180-225 100 4
– 010 (turn on bit 1)
225-270 101 5
• It looks like we went
from 1 => 0 => 2 270-315 110 6

315-360 111 7
 Gray Code
• One bit change per angle change.
Angle Binary Decimal

Bit 0 0-45 000 0

Bit 1 45-90 001 1

Bit 2 90-135 011 2

135-180 010 3
Bit 0
180-225 110 4

Bit 1 225-270 111 5

270-315 101 6
Bit 2
315-360 100 7
Binary to Gray and
Gray to Binary Code
Example: Convert 0010 to Binary Code

• Copy MSB: 0_ _ _
• Write 0s until next 1 is met: 00_ _
• Switch to writing 1s: 001_
• Write 1s: 0011
Example: Convert 1110 to Binary Code

• Copy MSB: 1_ _ _
• Write 1s until next 1 is met: 1_ _ _
• Switch to writing 0s until next 1 is met: 10_ _
• Switch to writing 1s until next 1 is met: 1011
 Encoder Resolution

Absolute Optical Encoder

• Resolution is the smallest movement detectable by

the encoder.
• Resolution can be given in number of bits or degrees
• Depends on the number of tracks on the code disk.

Resolution = 360°/(2N)
N = number of encoder bits (number of
tracks)
Example:
An absolute encoder has 8 tracks on the disc. What is its
angular resolution in degrees?
Resolution = 360°/(2N) = 360°/(28) = 1.4°
Incremental Vs Absolute Encoder
 Motion Detection(Rotational Displacement)
A resolver is a type of rotary electrical transformer used for
measuring degrees of rotation. It is considered an analog device,
and has a digital counterpart, the rotary (or pulse) encoder.

A resolver contains a single primary winding which is energized

with a sinusoidal voltage and two secondary windings positioned
at a right angle from one another 43
 Motion Detection(Rotational Displacement)

With no onboard electronics, resolvers can survive extreme temperatures and

tolerate shock and vibration, making resolvers suitable in applications where
encoders would fail
44
Motion Detection(Rotational Displacement)
 Temperature Sensors
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

 Thermistors

 Thermocouples
 RTD

• Two terminal device

• Usually made out of platinum

• Positive temperature coefficient

• RTD’s resistance as temp.

RTD Resistance Vs. Temp. (TCR) Curve

Resistance
(Ohms)

Temperature (oC)
 400

350
Platinum RTD
Copper RTD
300

250
R, Ohm

200

150

100

50

0
-300 -100 100 300 500 700 900

t, oC
 RTD
• The relationship between temperature and resistance of the
conductors is
R  R0 (1    T )
Where
R = The resistance of the conductor at temperature t (°C)
Ro = The resistance at the reference temperature, usually 20°C
 = The temperature coefficient of resistance
T = The difference between the operating and the reference
temperature
A platinum resistance thermometer has a
resistance of 150Ω at 20oC. Calculate its
resistance at 50oC (  20 =0.00392).

Solution:-
R  R0 (1    T )
 150  [1  0.00392 (50  20) o C ]

 167.64 
 RTDs
Advantages Disadvantages

• Most stable over time • High cost

• Most accurate • Slowest response time
• High repeatability • Low sensitivity to small
temperature changes
• Sensitive to vibration
(strains the platinum
element wire)
 Thermistor
Thermistor – a resistor whose resistance changes with
temperature
Therm
   istor

Thermal Resistor
 Thermistor

• Very large resistance change = small temp. change

• Temp. changes as small as 0.1oC

• Thermistor’s accuracy limited to small temp. range

• Mostly used in medical equipment

• Thermistors are also used are for engine coolant, oil, and
air temperature measurement in the transportation industry.
 Thermistors
• Resistive element is generally a metal-oxide ceramic
containing Cu, Ni, or Mn

• Packaged in a thermally conductive glass bead or disk with

two metal leads.

• Suppose we have a “1 kΩ thermistor”…

• What does this mean?
• At room temperature, the resistance of the thermistor is
1 kΩ
• Available in the form of discs, beads and rods.
 Thermistors
Advantages Disadvantages

• Nonlinear
High sensitivity
response
to small temperature changes

• Limited
Fast response
temperature range

• Fragile
Inexpensive

• Some initial accuracy “drift”

• Unstable due to drift and decalibration (especially at high

temperatures)
 Thermocouple
• Thermocouple – a two-terminal element, consisting of
two dissimilar metal wires joined at the end

• Works on “seeback” effect

• Two different metals joined together form the hot and cold
junctions

• When the temperature difference exists between hot and cold

junctions, it produces the proportionate output voltage
 The Seebeck Effect

• Seebeck Effect – A conductor generates a

voltage when it is subjected to a temperature
gradient
 The Seebeck Effect
• Measuring this voltage requires the use of a
second conductor material

Nickel-
Will I observe Chromium
a difference Alloy
in voltage at
the ends of
two wires
composed of
the same
material?
Nickel-
Chromium
Alloy
 The Seeback Effect
– Measuring this voltage requires the use of a second
conductor material
– The other material needs to be composed of a
different material
Nickel-
The Chromium
relationship Alloy
between
temperature
difference
and voltage
varies with
materials
Copper-Nickel
Alloy
 The Seeback Effect
•

Nickel-
The
The voltage difference of + Chromium
relationship
the two dissimilar metals
Alloy
between
can be measured and
temperature
related to the
difference
and voltage
corresponding temperature VS =
gradient
varies with
materials
SΔT
- Copper-Nickel
Alloy
 Measuring Temperature
• To measure temperature using a
thermocouple, you can’t just connect the
thermocouple to a measurement system
(e.g. voltmeter)

62
 Measuring Temperature
• To measure temperature using a thermocouple,
you can’t just connect the thermocouple to a
measurement system (e.g. voltmeter)

• The voltage measured by your system is

proportional to the temperature difference
between the primary junction (hot junction) and
the junction where the voltage is being
measured (Ref junction)
 Measuring Temperature

To determine You need to

the absolute know the
temperature temperature
at the hot at the Ref
junction… junction!

How can we
determine the
temperature at the
reference junction?
Ice Bath Method (Forcing a Temperature)

• Thermocouples measure the voltage difference between

two points
• To know the absolute temperature at the hot junction,
one must know the temperature at the Ref junction
Ice Bath Method

• NIST thermocouple
reference tables are
generated with Tref = 0 oC

Vmeas = V(Thot) – V(Tref)

V(Vhot) = Vmeas + V(Tref)

If we know the voltage-

temperature relationship of our
thermocouple, we could determine
the temperature at the hot junction
 Thermocouple Types
• Made up of two different metal alloy wires.
• Different alloys result in different temperature
ranges.
 Thermocouples

Advantages Disadvantages

 Simple, Rugged  Least stable, least

repeatable

 High temperature
 Low sensitivity to small
operation
temperature changes

 Low cost  Extension wire must be of

the same thermocouple
 No resistance lead wire type
problems
 Lowest accuracy
 Point temperature sensing
Temperature Sensors Comparison
Temperature Sensors Comparison
 Force Sensors
Strain gauge
What is Strain? Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due
to an applied force. More specifically, strain is defined as the
fractional change in length.
• When a force is applied to a structure, the components of the
structure change slightly in their dimensions and are said to be
strained.

A strain gauge is a thin strip of metal designed to measure

mechanical load by changing resistance when stressed.

The resistance of a strain gauge varies with applied force.

It converts parameters such as force, pressure, tension, weight,

etc into a change in resistance
 Strain Gauge

• A strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in

proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The most
widely used gage is the bonded metallic strain gage.
 When a strain gauge is bonded to an object, and the
object changes in size, the resistance of the strain gauge will
change. The resistance R is given by the expression:

R= ρ l/A

Where:
 l is the length of the wire in meters
 ρ is the resistivity of the material in ohm meters
 A is the cross-sectional area of the filament in m2
When strain gauges measure the changing dimensions of an object,
they are measuring strain. Strain is the ratio of the change in dimension
of an object to the original dimension

Mechanical strain ε = ΔL / L

When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change

in resistance ΔR/R being proportional to the mechanical strain i.e.

Electrical strain ΔR/R= G . ΔL/L

where G is the gauge factor (1.8 – 2.2)

R varies between 50 Ω and 2KΩ
Quarter strain gauge bridge with differential amplifier
Resistance measurement
Wheatstone Bridge for Resistance Measurement

 The Wheatstone bridge consists of two parallel resistance branches with

each branch containing two series resistor elements.
 A DC voltage source is connected across the resistance network to provide
a source of current through the resistance network.
 A null detector is the galvanometer which is connected between the
parallel branches to detect the balance condition.
 The Wheatstone bridge is an accurate and reliable instrument and heavily
used in the industries.
 Operation
(i) We want to know the value of R4, vary one of the remaining
resistor until the current through the null detector decreases to zero.
(ii) the bridge is in balance condition, the voltage across resistor R 3
is equal to the voltage drop across R4.
 At balance the voltage drop at R1 and R2 must be equal to.
Wheatstone Bridge
 Analysis

• Identify the currents

Consider the bridge at “balance”, ig=0

i1  i3
i2  ix
i3 R3  ix Rx
i1 R1  i2 R2
Some Algebra

i1 R3  i2 Rx
i1 R1  i2 R2
R3 Rx

R1 R2
R2
Rx  R3
R1
Use to Measure Resistance
Ratio Arms

R2
Rx  R3
R1
 Quiz

1. Assume R2 is adjusted until the Wheatstone bridge is

balanced. At this point, the voltage across R4 is measured and
found to be 5.0 V. The voltage across R1 will be
a. 4.0 V
b. 5.0 V R1 R3
VS +
c. 6.0 V 12 V + RL -
-
d. 7.0 V
R2 R4
5.0 V
 Ans

1. Assume R2 is adjusted until the Wheatstone bridge is

balanced. At this point, the voltage across R4 is measured and
found to be 5.0 V. The voltage across R1 will be
a. 4.0 V
b. 5.0 V R1 R3
VS +
c. 6.0 V 12 V + RL -
-
d. 7.0 V
R2 R4
5.0 V
 Quiz

1. An unbalanced Wheatstone bridge has the voltages shown.

The voltage across R4 is
a. 4.0 V
b. 5.0 V R1 R3
VS + 7.0 V
c. 6.0 V 12 V + RL -
-
d. 7.0 V 1 .0 V
R2 R4
 Ans

1. An unbalanced Wheatstone bridge has the voltages shown.

The voltage across R4 is
a. 4.0 V
b. 5.0 V R1 R3
VS + 7.0 V
c. 6.0 V 12 V + RL -
-
d. 7.0 V 1 .0 V
R2 R4
 Range Sensors
• To measure the distance from the sensor to a nearby object

• Working principles
1. Triangulation: Use the triangle formed by the traveling path of the
signal to calculate the distance

2. Time-of-flight: Use the time of flight of the signals to measure the distance

Typical range sensors

Infra-red range sensor (triangulation)

Laser range sensor (triangulation)
Ultrasonic sensors (time-of-flight)
 IR Sensor
Principle of operation: triangulation
IR emitter + focusing lens + IR detector

Why infrared?

There are not many

other infrared sources in
everyday life that would
interfere with this
sensor.

If visible light were

used, light bulbs,
computer screens,
cellphone screens, etc,
would all interfere with
the depth reading
Working Principle:
 Limitations of Infrared Sensors
• Poor reflection of IR signals: Certain dark objects cannot
reflect the IR signals well.
• The absence of reflected IR signals does not mean that
no object is present!

• Background noises: The sensor fails to work if there are

similar IR signals sources in the environment.

• IR sensors measure objects in short range.

• Typical maximum range is 50 to 100 cm

Ultrasonic Range Sensor
 Ultrasonic Sensor
• Features
– Power supply: 5V DC
– Quiescent current: <15mA
– Effectual angle: <15°
– Ranging distance: 2cm – 350 cm
– Resolution: 0.3 cm
– Output cycle: 50ms
 Laser Ranger Finder
The working principle: Triangulation.

Spin the laser strip and detect the reflected light

Range 2-500 meters

Resolution : 10 mm

Field of view : 100 - 180 degrees

Angular resolution : 0.25 degrees

Scan time : 13 - 40 msec.

These lasers are more immune to Dust and Fog

 Touch sensors

a simple electrical flow

switch
force voltage
measurement
 Limit Switch
• Limit switches are mechanical devices.

• A limit switch has the same ON/OFF characteristics.

• The limit switch usually has a pressure-sensitive mechanical

arm.

• When an object applies pressure on the mechanical arm, the

switch circuit is energized.

• An object might have a magnet attached that causes a contact

to rise and close when the object passes over the arm.
 Limit Switch

• Limit switches can be either

- Normally open (NO) or
- Normally closed (NC) and may have multiple poles.

 A normally open switch has continuity when

pressure applied and a contact is made.

 While a normally closed switch opens when

pressure is applied.
 Limit Switch

 A single pole switch allows one circuit to

be opened or closed upon switch contact.

 Multiple-pole switch allows multiple

circuits to be opened or closed.
 Limit Switches – Advantages
– Simple and rugged.

– They are easy to maintain because the operator

can hear the operation of the switch and can align
it easily to fit the application.

Limit Switches -Disadvantages

• They are subject to mechanical failure.

• Their speed of operation is relatively low; the switching

speed of photoelectric microsensors is up to 3000 times
faster
Proximity Sensors
 Proximity Sensors
• Proximity sensing is the technique of
detecting the presence or absence of an
object with an electronic non-contact
sensor. There are two types of proximity
sensors:

1. Inductive,
2. Capacitive
 Proximity Sensors
• Mechanical limit switches are the first devices
to detect objects in industrial applications.

• Inductive proximity sensors are used in place

of limit switches for non-contact sensing of
metallic objects.

• Capacitive proximity switches can also detect

non-metallic objects.

• Both inductive and capacitive sensors are limit

switches with ranges up to 100mm.
 Inductive Proximity Sensors

• Inductive sensors are used to detect the

presence of metallic objects.
• These sensors require DC or AC voltage
to drive circuitry to generate the fields
and to produce output signal.
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
• An inductive proximity sensor consists of four
basic elements:

1. Sensor coil and ferrite

core
2. Oscillator circuit
3. Trigger/Detector circuit
4. Solid-state output circuit
Inductive Proximity Sensor
working principle
– The oscillator circuit generates a radio-
frequency electromagnetic field that radiates
from the ferrite core and coil assembly.
– The field is centered around the axis of the
ferrite core, which shapes the field and
directs it at the sensor face.
– When a metal target approaches and enters
the field, eddy current are induced into the
surfaces of the target.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
working principle
– This results in a loading effect, or “damping” that
causes a reduction in amplitude of the oscillator
signal.

– The detector circuit detects the change in

oscillator amplitude. The detector will switch ON
at specific operate amplitude.

– This ON signal generates a signal to turn ON

the solid state output. This is often referred to as
the damped condition.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
working principle

• As the target leaves the sensing field, the

oscillator responds with an increase in
amplitude.

• As the amplitude increases above a

specific value, it is detected by the
detector circuit, which switches OFF,
causing the output signal to return to the
normal or OFF(undamped) state.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor

• Typical applications of inductive proximity sensors in

control systems:

• Motion position detection

• Motion control
• Conveyor system control
• Process control
• Machine control
• Verification and counting
Capacitive Proximity Sensors
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
– Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric
capacitance.
– Capacitance is the property of insulators to store an
electric charge.
– A capacitor consists of two plates separated by an
insulator, usually called a dielectric.
– When the switch is closed a charge is stored on the
two plates.
– The distance between the plates determine the
ability of a capacitor to store a charge and can be
calibrated as a function of stored charge to
determine discrete ON and OFF switching status.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
The capacitive proximity sensor has the same four
basic elements as an inductive sensor:

1.Sensor (the dielectric

plate)
2.Oscillator circuit
3.Detector circuit
4.Solid-state output circuit
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
– The oscillator circuit includes feedback capacitance from the external
target plate and the internal plate.

– In a capacitive switch, the oscillator starts oscillating when sufficient

feedback capacitance is detected.

– The oscillation begin with an approaching target until the value of

capacitance reaches a threshold.

– At threshold point the trigger circuit will turn on the output switching
device.

– Thus the output modules function as normally open, normally closed, or

changeover switches.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Features of capacitive sensors:

• They can detect non-metallic targets

• They can detect lightweight or small objects that
cannot be detected by mechanical limit switches
• They provide a high switching rate for rapid
response in object counting applications.
• They can detect liquid targets through non-
metallic barriers, (glass, plastic, etc)
• They have long operational life with a virtually
unlimited number of operating cycles.
• The solid-state output provides a bounce-free
contact signal
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Typical applications of capacitive proximity sensors
in control systems:

•Liquid level detection

•Bulk material level control
•Process control
 Accelerometer
• Accelerometer - A device
used to measure acceleration

• Acceleration - The time

derivative of velocity or the
second time derivative of
position

• Applications m Position Sensor

– Vibrations, blasts, impacts,

shock waves k b

– Air bags, washing machines,

Force=Mass × Acceleration
heart monitors, car alarms Vibrating Base
 Newton’s Second law of motion says that the acceleration (m/s ) of a body is
directly proportional to, and in the same direction as, the net force (Newton)
acting on the body, and inversely proportional to its mass (gram).

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

It is important to note that acceleration creates a force that is captured by the force-
detection mechanism of the accelerometer.

So the accelerometer really measures force, not acceleration; it basically measures

acceleration indirectly through a force applied to one of the accelerometer's axes.