MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Measurement and Instrumentation (MEng5104 )

2016 EC

Chapter 3
Measurement of Displacement
 Transducers and sensor
• Transducer is a device that convert/transforms one
form of energy into another
• Sensor is a component, device or equipment that
detects variation of physical phenomenon and
responds (or provides) equivalent electrical or non-
electrical quantity corresponding to it.

Classification of sensors
1. The physical effect employed as resistive, inductive,
capacitive sensors
2. The source of energy the used to provide an
output as active and passive sensors
3. The physical quantity they convert as displacement
sensor, temperature sensor, speed sensor, pressure
sensor e.t.c

2
Displacement, position & proximity
Sensors

• Displacement: concerned with the

measurement of the amount by which the
object has moved.
• Position: the determination of the position
of some object w.r.t. some reference
position.
• Proximity: used to determine when an
object has moved to within some particular
critical distance of the sensor.
 Potentiometer
• A potentiometer is a variable electrical
resistance. A length of resistance
material has a voltage applied over its
ends. A slider moves along it (either
linear or rotary) and picks off the
voltage at its position or angle. The
tracks may be made from carbon ,
resistance wire or piezo resistive
material. The wire wound type produces
small step changes in the output
depending on how fine the wire is and
how closely it is coiled on the track.
• When used as a measurement transducer, a linear
potentiometer is normally required.
• Use of the term linear assumes that the resistance
measured between one of the ends of the element and
the contactor is a direct linear function of the contactor
position in relation to that end.
• Linearity is never achieved, however, and deviation
limits are usually supplied by the manufacturer.
• A voltage Vs is applied across the two ends A
and B of the resistance element and an
output voltage V0 is measured between the
point of contact C of the sliding element and
the end of the resistance element A.
• A linear relationship exists between the
output voltage V0 and the distance AC, which
can be expressed by:
 Strain gauge

• Strain gauges are measuring elements

which can sense changes in applied
mechanical force by transducing
mechanical force to electrical
resistance.
• Resistance of an electrical conductor
varies according to the following
relation
• Strain gauge can be used as Force, torque, pressure,
stress, and strain sensor
• Their resistance changes with not only strain but also
temperature.

Electrical resistance strain gauge (metal foil strip)

• Ideally, we would like the resistance of the
strain gauge to change only in response to
applied strain. However, strain gauge material,
as well as the specimen material to which the
gauge is applied, will also respond to changes
in temperature.
• Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to
minimize sensitivity to temperature by
processing the gauge material to compensate
for the thermal expansion of the specimen
material for which the gauge is intended.
• By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the
effect of temperature can be further
minimized.
 (a) (b)

Alternative use of a strain gauge for measuring the force applied to a cantiliver beam…Top
view and Side view
• Strain gauges attached to
flexible cantilever.
• During deformation
tensile and compressive
forces on the element
change the resistance i.e.
the strain thus it can be a
measurement of
displacement or
deformation of the
flexible element.
• Strain gauges are
designed for maximum
sensitivity by arranging
the strain gauge
elements in opposing
directions.
 Capacitive element
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is
given by
Ɛ� Ɛ� �
�=
�
• where er is the relative permittivity of the
dielectric between the plates, e0 a constant
called the permittivity of free space, A the area of
overlap between the two plates and d the plate
separation. Capacitive sensors for the monitoring
of linear displacements might thus take the forms.
• In (a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement
so that the plate separation changes; in (b) the
displacement causes the area of overlap to change; in
(c) the displacement causes the dielectric between
the plates to change.

Forms of capacitive sensing element

 LVDT
• Linear variable differential transformer
• Consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insulated tube.
• The central coil is the primary coil and the other two are
identical secondary coils which are connected in series
in such away that their outputs oppose each other.
• When there is an alternating voltage input to the
primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in the
secondary coils. Since the magnetic core is at the center
the e.m.f induced In each coil is the same.
• However, when the core is displaced from the central
position there is a great amount of magnetic core in one
coil than the other.
• There is then a net output from the
two coils.
 Optical encoders
• An encoder is a device that provides a
digital output as a result of a linear
or angular displacement. Position
encoders can be grouped in two
categories: incremental encoders and
absolute encoders.
 Incremental encoder
• The incremental encoder, sometimes called a relative encoder, is
simpler in design than the absolute encoder.
• It consists of two tracks and two sensors whose outputs are called
channels A and B.
• As the shaft rotates, pulse trains occur on these channels at a
frequency proportional to the shaft speed, and the phase relationship
between the signals yields the direction of rotation.
• By counting the number of pulses and knowing the resolution of the
disk, the angular motion can be measured.
• The A and B channels are used to determine the direction of rotation
by assessing which channels "leads" the other.
• The signals from the two channels are a 1/4 cycle out of phase with
each other and are known as quadrature signals.
 Cont…
• Often a third output channel, called INDEX, yields
one pulse per revolution, which is useful in
counting full revolutions. It is also useful as a
reference to define a home base or zero position
 Absolute encoder
• The optical disk of the absolute encoder is designed to produce a
digital word that distinguishes N distinct positions of the shaft.

• For example, if there are 8 tracks, the encoder is capable of

producing 256 distinct positions or an angular resolution of 1.406
(360/256) degrees.

• The most common types of numerical encoding used in the absolute

encoder are gray and binary codes.

• The linear patterns and associated timing diagrams are what the
photo-detectors sense as the code disk circular tracks rotate with the
shaft.
• The gray code is designed so that only one track (one bit) will change
state for each count transition, unlike the binary code where multiple
tracks (bits) change at certain count transitions.

• For the gray code, the uncertainty during a transition is only one count,
unlike with the binary code, where the uncertainty could be multiple
counts.

• Since the gray code provides data with the least uncertainty but the
natural binary code is the preferred choice for direct interface to
computers and other digital devices, a circuit to convert from gray to
binary code is desirable.
Cont…
Cont…
 Cont…
Decimal code Rotation range (deg.) Binary code Gray code

0 0-22.5 0000 0000

1 22.5-45 0001 0001
2 45-67.5 0010 0011
3 67.5-90 0011 0010
4 90-112.5 0100 0110
5 112.5-135 0101 0111
6 135-157.5 0110 0101
7 15.75-180 0111 0100
8 180-202.5 1000 1100
9 202.5-225 1001 1101
10 225-247.5 1010 1111
11 247.5-270 1011 1110
12 270-292.5 1100 1010
13 292.5-315 1101 1011
14 315-337.5 1110 1001
15 337.5-360 1111 1000
 Pneumatic sensors
• Involve the use of compressed air.
• Displacement or proximity of an object being transformed into a
change in air pressure.
• Are used for measurement of displacements of fractions of
millimeters in ranges which typically are about 3 to 12mm.
No close by object
• Low pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front
of the sensor in doing so it reduces the pressure in the nearby
sensor output port.
With an object near by
• The air can not escape so readily and the result is that the
pressure increases in the sensor output port.
 Proximity Switches
• It is a switch which can be activated by the presence of an
object in order to give a proximity sensor with an output
which is either on or off.
Microswitch: a small electrical switch which requires
physical contact and a small operating force to close the
contacts.
Eg: determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt.

Different ways such a switch can be actuated

Cont…
 Cont…
• Reed Switch: consists of magnetic switch contacts
sealed in a glass tube.
• It is a non-contact proximity switch.
• widely used for checking the closure of doors
and as tachometers.
 Light Sensors(Photoelectric Sensors)
• Use a modulated light beam that is either broken or
reflected by the target.
• Elements: consists of
– an emitter (light source),
– a receiver to detect the emitted light, and
– electronics that evaluate and amplify the detected signal causing
the photoelectric’s output switch to change state.
 Cont…
• Photosensitive devices: used to detect the
presence of an opaque object by it breaking a
beam of light or by detecting the light reflected
back by the object.
 Modulated Light
• Modulated light increases the sensing range while reducing the effect of ambient light.
The photoelectric sensor is able to distinguish the modulated light from ambient light.

• Light sources: laser diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). These emit light in a
narrow frequency band in the infrared region and are not affected by sunlight.
• Light detector: photocells (cadmium sulphide or cadmium selenide being the most
common type of photocell), phototransistors and photodiodes. Resistance is reduced
according to the intensity of light to which they are exposed.
 Scan Techniques
• Scan technique: is a method used by photoelectric
sensors to detect an object (target).
• In part, the best technique to use depends on the target.
– targets are opaque and others are highly reflective.
– Scanning distance is also a factor in selecting a scan technique.
Some techniques work well at greater distances while others
work better when the target is closer to the sensor.
• Thru-Beam: Separate emitter and receiver units are
required for a thru-beam sensor.
– An object (target) placed in the path of the light beam blocks
the light to the receiver, causing the receiver’s output to
change state.
– When the target no longer blocks the light path the receiver’s
output returns to its normal state.
• Suitable for detection of opaque or reflective objects.
• It cannot be used to detect transparent objects.
examples