COEG 304

Mechanical Sensors: Displacement, location, position and

proximity sensors, strain sensors, motion sensors, pressure
sensors, flow sensors, optical encoder
 Mechanical Sensors:
Position Sensor – Fuel level Gauge
 Hall Effect position sensor:

• Output voltage varies linearly as the magnetic field varies.

• If the field is +β (north to south), the voltage VO increases from
VOQ.
• If the field is –β (south to north), the voltage VO decreases from VOQ.
Example of Hall Effect Position
Sensor:

Linear Position Sensor

Angular Position Sensor

 LVDT
• The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT) is a type of sensor which converts
linear displacement into an variable electrical
signal.
• LVDT consists of a sliding ferromagnetic core
which sits inside 3 electrical coils, a primary
coil in the middle and two identical secondary
coils at either side.
 Figure: LVDT

When the core is centrally located, the voltage induced in each secondary is equal

If the core moves to one side or other, the larger voltage will be induced in the one
than in other side due to changes in flux linkage associated with the core.
 Proximity Sensors
(Presence Sensors)
 Mechanical Proximity Switches (Limit
Switches)

– Advantage: robust, cheap

– Disadvantage: switch bounce, mechanical wearing
due to contact
 Inductive Proximity Switches

– Sensing electrically conductive objects

– Magnetic flux generated by a coil.
– When object enters the magnetic field, eddy current is
induced in the object
– impedance of coil increases decreasing current through
the coil.
 Hall Effect proximity switches

Sense magnetic objects

 Optical Proximity Switches

– A light source (LED) and light detector (phototransistor)

– Modulation of signal to minimize ambient lighting conditions
– Advantage: Non-contact, no moving parts, small, Fast
switching, no switch bounce, Insensitive to vibration and shock
– Disadvantage: Alignment always required, Requires clean, dust
and water free, environment
Opposed mode (interrupted beam)

Retroreflective mode
Diffuse reflection mode

Specular reflection mode

 Strain gauge - Sensor
• When object is put under tension, the gauge bounded to it will stretch and elongate the
wires.
• The wires not only get slightly longer but also thinner causing change in resistance. R   l
A
• To cancel out variations due to temperature, compensation gauge is placed physically near
the active gauge so as to receive the same temperature.
• But it is oriented perpendicularly from the active gauge so the force will not elongate its
wires.
• The relation between strain and resistance is related and is defined as guage factor (GF).
R / R
GF 
l / l
stress = ΔR/R = fractional change in guage resistance because of strain
strain = Δl/l = fractional change in length.
 Pressure Sensors:
i. Bourdon Tubes:
• A short bent tube, closed at one end.
• Tends to straighten out when pressurized.
• A position sensor such as a pot or LVDT(linear variable differential
transformer) can convert the displacement into an electrical signal
 Pressure Sensors (Contd…) :
ii. Bellows:
• uses a small metal bellows to convert pressure into linear motion
• As the pressure inside increases, the bellows expand against the resistance
of a spring (the spring is often the bellows itself).
• This motion is detected with a position sensor.
• Bellows are capable of more sensitivity than the Bourdon tube in the
lower-pressure range.
 Tactile sensor
• Touch sensing
• Force distribution is measured using a closed array of force sensors.
• Example 1: A tactile force sensor using a spring-loaded linear pot.
• Example 2: Conductive-foam tactile sensor.
• When the foam is squeezed, the carbon particles are pushed
together, and the resistance of the material falls.
 Flow Rate Sensors
• Volumetric flow rate sensors:

1. Difference pressure
flow  P1 – P2

Flow rate measured by difference pressure. Venture Pipe

Bellows Differential
Transformer

P1 P2
 Flow Rate Sensors (cont…)
2. Turbine sensors
Flow measured by rotation of the turbine
 Flow Rate Sensors (cont…)
3. Magnetic flow sensor
• electrically conductive liquid
• magnetic field generated by oscillating voltage
applied in the coils
• voltage induced in electrodes depends upon flow
of liquid
 Optical Encoders
• Measure displacement and velocity.
• Emitter receiver pair reads coded disk [rotational] or bar [linear].
• Can be classified into two categories depending on the nature
and method of interpretation of the output:
i) Incremental Encoders
ii) Absolute Encoders

Incremental encoder consists of a moving disc mounted to the rotating

shaft, light sources (LEDs), and light receivers (phototransistors).
• The moving disc has the same number of slits as PPR (pulses per revolution).
• The light of LEDs passing through the slits on the disc is transmitted
to phototransistors, and in turn, is converted to square wave–shaped electric
signals.
• Commonly, the encoder has three outputs called A, B, and Z. The total number
of A and B pulses per revolution is equal to PPR, with which the angular
position and speed can be calculated.
• The A and B pulses are 90°out of phase, which allows the identification of
the direction of rotation as shown in Figure.
• For example, when rotating in the forward direction, pulse A is ahead of
pulse B.
• There is another pulse Z known as the index or reference pulse besides
pulses A and B. Pulse Z is generated once per revolution and can be used to
set the reference position
Absolute encoder
• An incremental encoder can only tell you how far the joint has
moved since the encoder was turned on.

• An absolute encoder can tell you where the joint is at any time,
regardless of the position of the joint at power on.

• To provide absolute position information, an absolute encoder

uses many more LED/phototransistor pairs, and each one
provides a single bit of information on the joint’s position.

• The absolute disc in Figure 1 has four outputs providing a

unique binary code for each segment on the disc, sixteen in this
case (Table)

• An alternative to binary code is grey code, which is a binary

code where adjacent binary words differ by only a single bit
transition.
 Absolute Encoders

Figure: Absolute Optical Encoder

Table: The absolute disc outputs binary encoded data

 LEVEL SENSORS:
Discrete-Level Detectors:
 LEVEL SENSORS:
Continuous-Level Detectors:
 Thank You !!!

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