Sensors: Microprocessor Control of Manufacturing Systems and Introduction To Mechatronics

ME4447/6405
ME 4447/6405
Microprocessor Control of Manufacturing Systems
and
Introduction to Mechatronics
Sensors
Optical Encoder: Ryder Winck
Laser Interferometer: Aaron Scott
LVDT: Alexandre Lenoble
George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Presentation Outline
• Optical Encoders
• Introduction
• Optical Encoder Components
• Types of Optical Encoders
• Encoder Discs and Digital Codes
• Encoder Reliability and Errors
• Applications
• Laser Interferometer
• What is a Laser Interferometer
• Types of Laser Interferometer
• How Do they Work
• Resolutions and Sampling Rate
• Applications
• Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT)
• What is a LVDT
• Types of LVDTs
• How Do they Work
• Applications

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
What is an Encoder?
• Any transducer that changes a signal into a
coded (digital signal)
• Optical Encoders
– Use light & photosensors to produce digital code
(ie. Lab 3 encoder).
– Most popular type of encoder.
• Can be linear or rotary.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Types of Optical Encoders

• 2 types of Optical Encoders:
– 1. Incremental (Lab 3 encoder)
• Measure displacement relative to a reference point.
– 2. Absolute
• Measure absolute position.
• Advantages – A missed reading does not affect the next
reading. Only needs power on when taking a reading.
• Disadvantages – More expensive/complex.
Cost/complexity proportional to resolution/accuracy.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Fundamental Components
• Light source(s)
– LEDs or IR LEDs provide light source.
– Light is collimated using a lens to make the beams
parallel.
• Photosensor(s)
– Either Photodiode or Phototransistor.
• Opaque disk (Code Disk)
– One or more “tracks” with slits to allow light to
pass through.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Optical Encoder Components

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Other Components
• Stationary “masking” disk
– Identical track(s) to Code Disk
– Eliminates error due to the diameter of the light beam being
greater than the code disk window length.
• Signal amplifiers and pulse shape circuitry.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Quadrature
• Two tracks (A & B) at

90 degrees offset.
• Provide direction
information.
• Provides up to 4 times
resolution.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Encoder Disks
Incremental Disk Absolute Disks
Binary Gray Code

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Absolute Disk Codes
• Example: 3 bit binary code
Angle Binary Decimal
Bit 0
0-45 000 0
Bit 1 45-90 001 1
Bit 2 90-135 010 2
135-180 011 3
Bit 0 180-225 100 4
225-270 101 5
Bit 1
270-315 110 6
315-360 111 7
Bit 2

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Problem with Binary Code

• One angle shift results 0-45 000 0
in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1
• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

– 001 (start at 1) 135-180 011 3
– 000 (turn off bit 0)
180-225 100 4
– 010 (turn on bit 1)
225-270 101 5
270-315 110 6
315-360 111 7

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Problem with Binary Code

• One degree shift results 0-45 000 0
in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1
• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

– 001 (start at 1) 135-180 011 3
– 000 (turn off bit 0)
180-225 100 4
– 010 (turn on bit 1)
225-270 101 5
• It looks like we went
270-315 110 6
from 1 => 0 => 2
315-360 111 7

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Gray Code
• One bit change per angle change.
Bit 0 0-45 000 0
Bit 1 45-90 001 1

Bit 2 90-135 011 2
135-180 010 3
Bit 0
180-225 110 4
Bit 1 225-270 111 5
270-315 101 6
Bit 2
315-360 100 7

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Converting from Gray Code to Binary Code

1. Copy MSB.
2. If MSB is 1, write 1s until next 1 is met.
If MSB is 0, write 0s until next 1 is met.
3. When 1 is met, logically switch what you are
writing (1=>0 or 0=>1).
4. Continue writing the same logical until next
1 is met.
5. Loop back to step 3.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Example: Convert 0010 to Binary

Code
• Copy MSB: 0_ _ _
• Write 0s until next 1 is met: 00_ _
• Switch to writing 1s: 001_
• Write 1s: 0011

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Example: Convert 1110 to Binary

Code
• Copy MSB: 1_ _ _
• Write 1s until next 1 is met: 1_ _ _
• Switch to writing 0s until next 1 is met: 10_ _
• Switch to writing 1s until next 1 is met: 1011

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Encoder Reliability and Errors

• Resolution
360
– Incremental   where N=# of windows.
N
• Resolution can be increased by reading both rising and
360 360
falling edges (   2 N ) and by using quadrature (   4 N ).
360
– Absolute   n where n=# of tracks.
2
360
   90
4

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

• Encoder errors
1. Quantization Error – Dependent on digital word
size.
2. Assembly Error – Dependent on eccentricity of
rotation (is track center of rotation=center of
rotation of disk)
3. Manufacturing tolerances – Code printing
accuracy, sensor position, and irregularities in
signal generation.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

• Comment on pulse irregularity
– It is a result of noise in signal generation,
variations in light intensity, and imperfect edges.
– It can be mitigated using a Schmidt Trigger, but
this can lead to hysteresis.
– Using 2 adjacent sensor will negate this problem.

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405

• More encoder errors
4. Structural Limitations – Disk Deformation,
physical loads on shaft.
5. Coupling Error – Gear backlash, belt slippage,
etc…
6. Ambient Effects – Vibration, temperature, light
noise, humidity, etc…

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
Applications
• Any linear/rotary position/velocity sensing

– DC Motor control – robotics/automation
– Mechanical computer mouse
– Digital readouts for measurement gauges
– Tachometers – planes, trains and automobiles

Ryder Winck
ME4447/6405
References
• http://hades.mech.northwestern.edu/wiki/index.php/Image:Maxon-small2.jpg
• http://www.designworldonline.com/Uploads/Leadership/Encoder_Montage1.jpg
• http://www.gpi-encoders.com/06_Technical_Articles.htm
• http://books.google.com/books?id=CjB2ygeR95cC&pg=PA630&lpg=PA630&dq=
optical+encoder+mechatronics&source=bl&ots=uPB9nyu0AP&sig=PJYTMIG1dJ
6UOPzj6uNhvYx1xSE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA
639,M1
• http://books.google.com/books?id=gUbQ9_weg88C&pg=PA97&lpg=PA97&dq=o
ptical+encoders&source=web&ots=X2AbRCs5bL&sig=d-
otsCBPIq7KGQodesPx3QJ_qos&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=re
sult#PPA98,M1
• http://books.google.com/books?id=uG7aqgal65YC&pg=RA1-PA163&lpg=RA1-
PA163&dq=optical+encoders&source=web&ots=6-NhfhYb-F&sig=uf-
VtBwSPRNUaCfujxu0gFb-
xqY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PRA1-PA163,M1
• http://mechatronics.mech.northwestern.edu/design_ref/sensors/encoders.html
• http://books.google.com/books?id=9e4Omibz3L4C&pg=PA395&lpg=PA395&dq=
optical+encoders&source=web&ots=5bTXzKDiWG&sig=cGa9IdHuxw3Zq49SyV
CJbzjGQnc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA410,M1

ME4447/6405 Aaron Scott
Laser Interferometers
• What is a Laser Interferometer?
• Types of Laser Interferometers
• How Do they Work?
• Applications

What is a Laser Interferometer?

• Interferometry = “interference” + “measurement”
• Basic application: hi-res measurement of distances
• Basic principle: superposition of light waves
Constructive interference
Destructive interference


• The Michelson Interferometer
– Difference in path length results
in phase difference
– Phase difference causes
interference
– Interference determined by
analysis of fringe patterns


• Brief historical background
– First American Nobel Prize in Sciences 1907
– Optical precision instruments
– Invented the interferometer
– Most accurate measurement of c in his time
– Disproved existence of ether with famous
Michelson-Morley experiment Albert Michelson


Why “lasers” ?
• High coherence
• Collimated
• Predictable
– Frequency known

Types of Laser Interferometers

• Homodyne detection (standard interferometry)
– DC output signal from photodiode related to intensity of
light from interference
– Both beams have same frequency
• Heterodyne detection
– One beam is frequency modulated prior to detection
– AC output signal of interference at the beat frequency (see
board)
– Phase determined by signal analysis

Types of Laser Interferometers

• Advantages of Heterodyne Detection
– AC signal frequency can be greatly reduced
• AC frequency = fbeat = fmod – fsignal
– Detection at low frequency reduces effect of high
frequency noise
– Insensitive to ambient light and signal intensity

How Do They Work?

• Homodyne – already discussed (Michelson interferometer)
• Heterodyne
– Dual frequency,
polarized
laser source
– Polarizing
beam splitter

Resolutions and Sampling Rate

• Representative values
• Resolution
– 10 nm digital resolution
– sub-angstrom analog resolution
achieved by “external interpolation”
• Angstrom, Å = 1  10-10 m
• Sampling Rate
– 20 MHz

Applications
• Michelson used his interferometer to
measure the rotation rate of the Earth
– Perimeter of his ring was 1.9 km

Applications
• 3 axis ring laser gyro
– Many winds of optic fibers achieve 1 km path
– Sensitive enough to measure
Earth’s rotation despite small
size

Applications
• Distance measurement
– Profilometer to measure nanoscale surface features
– Nanopatterning Lithography
– Precision machining calibration
– High-precision linear feedback encoder
• Velocity measurement
– Doppler shift along measurement path changes beat
frequency

Applications
• Other measurements made possible by re-
arrangements of the light paths. We can
measure
– angle
– straightness
– flatness
– parallelism

Applications
• LIGO Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory
– Gravity waves, predicted by Gen. Relativity, could be
detected by sensing changes in length in perpendicular
directions
– Light bounces 75 times before returning to be combined
– Each arm 4 km

Applications
• LISA Laser Interferometer Space Antenna
– NASA/ESA expected 2018-2020
– Similar to LIGO but MUCH larger
– 5 gigameter arm length
– 3 interferometers in 1

References
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometry
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abraham_Michelson
• http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555191/Albert_Michelson.html
• http://www.renishaw.com/UserFiles/acrobat/UKEnglish/GEN-NEW-
0117.pdf
• http://www.ligo-la.caltech.edu/contents/overviewsci.htm
• http://lisa.nasa.gov/
• http://www.maxvalue.co.th/download/Excel.PDF
• DVD: “Albert A. Michelson Laboratory, History and Heritage” Public
Release, NAWCWD, China Lake

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
LVDT

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
What is a LVDT ?
- Linear Variable Displacement Transducer
- Electrical transformer used to measure linear

displacement

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Construction
Secondary #1 Primary Secondary #2
Lead wires
Displacement
Moveable core
- Primary coil and 2 symmetric secondary coils

- Coils are encapsulated in metal/Epoxy
- Ferromagnetic core

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
LVDT Types
- Distinction by :
- Power supply :
- DC
- AC
- Type of armature :
- Unguided
- Captive (guided)
- Spring-extended

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
DC LVDTs
- Easy to install
- Signal conditioning easier (equipment part of

LVDT)
- Can operate from dry cell batteries
- High unit cost

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
AC LVDTs
- Small size
- Very accurate – Excellent resolution (0.1 µm)
- Can operate with a wide temperature range

(-65° F to +221° F) (30°F to 120°F for
DC)
- Lower unit cost than DC LVDTs

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Cost per unit
- Unguided armature :
- DC : $485
- AC : $330
- Spring-extended armature
- DC : $1359
- AC : $1156

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Unguided armature
- Simplest mechanical configuration, armature

fits loosely on the bore of the LVDT, being
attached to the moving point by a male thread.
- Armature completely separable from the

transducer body.

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Unguided armature : applications
Well-suited for short-range (1 to

50mm), high speed applications (high-
frequency vibration)

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Captive (guided) armature
- Both static and dynamic applications
- Armature restrained and guided by a low-

friction assembly

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Captive (guided) armature
-Advantages compared to unguided armature :
- Better for longer working range (up to 500mm)
- Preferred when misalignment may occur

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Spring-extended armature
- Armature restrained and guided by a low-

friction assembly (as for captive armature)
- Internal spring to continuously push the

armature to its fullest possible extension

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Spring-extended armature
- Best suited for static or slow-moving

applications
- Lower range than captive armature (10 to

70mm)

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
LVDT Function
Primary coil Primary coil
Secondary coil Secondary coil Secondary coil Secondary coil

#1 #2 #1 #2
Input to primary Input to primary
Output from secondary Output from secondary

coils
Secondary coil #1 output (V1)
coils
Secondary coil #1 output (V1)
Secondary coil #2 output (V2) Secondary coil #2 output (V2)
V1 - V2 V1 - V2
George
Demodulated W.
output Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia output
Demodulated Tech
Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Summary
• LVDTs are robust equipment for

measuring displacement
• AC LVDTs require separate signal

conditioning equipment, while DC
LVDTs include signal conditioning
equipment on the device.

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Summary
• There are three types of LVDT: unguided

armature, captive armature, and spring-
extended armature.
• AC LVDT’s cost less than DC, but the entire

measurement system must be considered.

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Applications
LVDTs find lots of applications in :
- automation machinery
- civil engineering
- power generation
- manufacturing
- metal stamping
- OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer)
- aeronautics
- R&D

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Applications
Examples for OEM :
- Measure displacement of thermostat valve stem for diesel truck
engine monitoring system.
- Blood-testing device measuring the displacement of blood cells

as they contract. Clinical usage, diagnosis of blood disorders.
- Measuring displacement of diamond tip to determine material

hardness.

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
Applications
Examples for civil engineering :
- Displacement measurement of imbedded concrete anchors tested
for tensile, compression, bending strength and crack growth in
concrete
- Deformation and creep of concrete wall used for retaining wall

in large gas pipe installation.
- Dynamic measurement of fatigue in large structural components

used in suspension bridges.

Alexandre Lenoble
ME4447/6405
References
• www.dankuchma.com/cee498/presentations/LVDT%20Jason%20Hart.ppt
• Pr. Kurfess’s lecture
• http://www.daytronic.com/products/trans/lvdt/default.htm
• http://www.macrosensors.com

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ME4447/6405

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Types of Optical Encoders

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

• Two tracks (A & B) at

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Binary Gray Code

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Problem with Binary Code

• One angle shift results 0-45 000 0

in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1

• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Problem with Binary Code

• One degree shift results 0-45 000 0

in multiple bit changes. 45-90 001 1

• Example: 1 => 2 90-135 010 2

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Bit 0 0-45 000 0

Bit 1 45-90 001 1

Bit 1 225-270 111 5

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Converting from Gray Code to Binary Code

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Example: Convert 0010 to Binary

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Example: Convert 1110 to Binary

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Encoder Reliability and Errors

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Encoder Reliability and Errors

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Encoder Reliability and Errors

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Encoder Reliability and Errors

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

• Any linear/rotary position/velocity sensing

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

What is a Laser Interferometer?

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

What is a Laser Interferometer?

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

What is a Laser Interferometer?

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

What is a Laser Interferometer?

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Types of Laser Interferometers

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Types of Laser Interferometers

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

How Do They Work?

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

Resolutions and Sampling Rate

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech