SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION
1. IN PLANTS
2. IN HUMAN

Mrs Haukena 1
 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS:
FOCUS OF THIS TOPIC
 Flower structure and function
 Pollination: Self pollination & Cross
pollination.
 Fertilization: Double fertilization.
 Seed and fruit: Formation and
importance of dispersal

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Learning outcomes:
 define self-pollination as the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of the same flower or different flower on the
same plant
 define cross-pollination as the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of a flower on a different plant of the same
species
 describe the different structural adaptations and
functions of the parts of insect pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers
 investigate and draw the anthers and stigmas of
an insect-pollinated flower using a hand lens
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 LEARNING OUTCOME CONTINUE….
 observe, draw, interpret and compare the structure
of wind-pollinated and insect pollinated flowers
 name the agents of pollination
 discuss the implications to a species of self-
pollination and cross-pollination in terms of variation
and reliance on pollinators
 describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry
into the ovule followed by fertilisation (details of
production of endosperm and development are not
required)
 investigate the formation of pollen tubes in sugar
solutions
 explain the importance of seed dispersal

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 A FLOWER
 Some plants reproduce asexually and others
sexually.
 The reproductive organ of those plants that
reproduce sexually is called a FLOWER.
 A flower: is a sexual organ of sexual
reproduction in flowering plants (angiosperms).
 It is where the sex cells of the plants are
produced and join to form seeds.

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 A FLOWER
Flowers can be either Unisexual flowers or Bisexual
flower
a) Unisexual Flowers: has Stamen (male organs) and Carpel
(female organs) on separate flowers

Unisexual squash flowers

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 A FLOWER
b) Bisexual flower: has the stamen and carpels in the
same flower

Bisexual flower
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THE FLOWER STRUCTURE

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THE FLOWER STRUCTURE

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 LOOKING AT THE
FLOWER STRUCTURE.  Receptacle: the top of the flower
IT CONSIST OF: stalk which is expanded and which
 Receptacle bears the parts of the flower.
 Stalk (stem)  Stalk (peduncle):
 Calyx(Sepals)
 holds the whole flower and connect
 Petals
it to the stem.
 Carpel
 Carries inorganic & organic
 Ovary
 Ovule
nutrients to the flower.
 Female gametes  Calyx (Sepals):
 Stigma  are small, leaf-shaped, green-
 Style coloured and outermost part of the
 Stamen flower,
 Anther  Protect the developing flower
 Filament
and keep it from drying out/
 Male gamete
 Nectar gland/ nectary Or to protect the flower while
 Nectar developing in the bud stage.12
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 Petals: are bright coloured, scented(smell)
and may have nectar to attract insects for
pollination.
 Nectar gland/ nectary:
 A swelling found on the receptacle or
other parts of some flowers which
produces nectar.
 Nectar: is a sweet sugary solution
produced by nectaries. Insects and bird
feeds on nectar and pollinate the flower.

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THE STAMEN

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 THE STAMEN
 Stamen: is the male reproductive
structure or organs of the flower consist
of an anther and filament.
 Anther: produce pollen grains (the male
gamete /sex cells).
 Filament: the thin stem that holds the
anther in position expose it to agents of
pollination.
 Male gamete: the haploid sex cell which
fuse with the female gamete during
fertilisation to form the diploid zygote.
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THE CARPEL

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THE CARPEL

Ovule

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 PARTS OF FLOWER AND THEIR FUNCTION
CONTINUE….
 Carpel (pistil): -the female reproductive structure
or organs of the flower consist of a stigma, style,
ovary and ovule.
 Stigma: -receptive tip of style that receive pollen
from the anther during pollination. It also.
produce nutritive materials for pollen to
germinate
 Style: -the swollen part from the stigma to the
bottom of the carpel (ovary) which is the path
through which the pollen tube grows on its way to
the ovary for fertilisation.
- extent out the stigma to be exposed agent of
pollination. Mrs Haukena 18
 PARTS OF FLOWER AND THEIR FUNCTION
CONTINUE….
 Ovary: -the base of the carpel that contain the
female sex cells (the ovules) and develop into the
fruit after fertilization.

 Ovules: -located within the ovary that contain the

female gametes and develop into a seed after
fertilisation.
 Female gamete: the haploid sex cell (ovum) which
fuse with the male gamete during fertilisation to
form the diploid zygote.

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 POLLINATION
 Is the transfer of pollen grains from the
mature anther to a receptive stigma of
the same plant species.

 The male gamete travel as a pollen grain

from the anther to the stigma and join
with the ovule to form a seed.

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 POLLINATION CAN TAKE PLACE IN 2 WAYS:

1. Self-Pollination:Is the transfer of pollen

grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or different
flower on the same plant
2. Cross-Pollination: Is the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of a flower on a different plant of
the same species

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SELF POLLINATION

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SELF POLLINATION

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CROSS POLLINATION

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 IMPLICATIONS OF SELF POLLINATION[H]
Disadvantages of Self-Pollination:
 Reduce the amount of genetic variety in a
population.
 Reduce resistance to parasites and diseases-causing
organisms.
Advantages of Self-pollination:
 Allow pollination at environment where insects and
other pollinators are scares./ does not need
pollinators
 Plant with good characteristics pass them to
offsprings.
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 IMPLICATIONS OF CROSS POLLINATION
Advantages of Cross-Pollination:
 Ensure greater genetic variety in a population.
 Greater resistance to different environment
conditions.
 Increase the chance of survival.
 Greater ability for plants to adapt.

Disadvantages of Cross- Pollination:

A lot of pollen is wasted as insects eat up some
pollen and blown away by wind.

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 AGENTS OF POLLINATION
During pollination , an external agent is needed to transport
pollen from one flower to another, an agent can be biotic or
abiotic
Biotic are living agents . E.g mammals, birds and insects
Abiotic are non-living: E.g. wind and water

Wind: - in wind-pollination, pollen is carried from one flower to

the next by wind.
Insects: - in insect-pollination, pollen is carried from one flower
to another by insects,
Water: - in water pollination, pollen is carried from one flower
to the next by water.
Animals: - in animal pollination, pollen is carried from one
flower to the next by animals such as birds and bats.
Humans: in human pollination, pollen is carried from one
flower to the next artificially with a small brush.
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 INSECT POLLINATION
 Insect pollination: is the transfer of pollen to the receptive
stigma by insects. The flowers are called insect-pollinated
flower.
Adaptations of insect pollinated flower
 Have large, conspicuous petals, often with guidelines.
 Anther inside the flower, where insect has to brush past
them to get to nectar.
 Have an attractive smell (scent).
 Produce nectar.
 Sticky pollen to stick on animal’s body.
 Pollen grains are large, have spikes or hooks to attach on
animal’s body.
 Smaller Stigma are sticky, so pollens can stick on.

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INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS

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INSECT POLLINATED FLOWER

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INSECT POLLINATED FLOWER

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 WIND POLLITION
 Is the transfer of pollen from anther to the
receptive stigma by wind. The flower are called
wind-pollinated flower.
Adaptations of wind pollinated flower.
 Do not Smell and dull coloured.
 Do not produce nectar.
 Do not produce smell (no scent).
 Have large feathery anther hanging outside the
flower shaking in the wind.
 Produce very large amount of pollen as most of
it is lost in the wind.
 Smooth, light pollen which can be blown in the
wind. Mrs Haukena 32
EXAMPLE OF WIND POLLINATED
FLOWERS

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WIND POLLINATED FLOWER

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 THE GROWTH OF THE POLLEN TUBE
AND FERTILIZATION
THE GROWTH OF THE POLLEN TUBE:
 After pollination, the male gamete is inside the pollen
grain on the stigma.
 The male gamete has to reach the female gamete
inside the ovule which is inside the ovary.
 On the same species flower, the pollen grain absorb
sugar fluid secreted by the stigma and germinates.
 Germination causes pollen tube to grow down into
the stigma through the style to the ovary.

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 THE GROWTH OF THE POLLEN TUBE
AND FERTILIZATION CONTINUE..

 The pollen tube digest the style using enzymes

and enters ovary.
 It passes through the micropyle into the ovule and
then into the embryo sac.

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Mrs Haukena 37
THE GROWTH OF THE POLLEN TUBE

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 FERTILIZATIO IN PLANTS (DOUBLE
FERTILIZATION).
 The pollen tube has two gametes, entering the
ovule.
 1. One haploid male gamete nucleus passes into
the embryo sac and fuses with a female gamete
(egg) nucleus forming a diploid zygote. The
diploid zygote divides by mitosis to form the
embryo plant.

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2.The second male gamete nucleus passes further
into the embryo and fuses with the 2 polar nuclei
in the ovule to form a triploid endosperm
nucleus.
 The endosperm nucleus divide by mitosis to
form endosperm tissue.
 The cells in endosperm are filled with stored
food material, providing reserves for the
developing embryo.
This process of 2 fusion of a female gamete and 2
polar nuclei is called Double Fertilization.

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 AFTER FERTILIZATION
FORMATION OF THE FRUIT AND SEED
a) Formation of the fruit:
 Most of parts of the flower dry up and fall off.
 This include: sepals, petals and stamen.
 The ovary develop into a fruit: to protect the seed
inside it until they are ripe.
b) Formation of the seed:
 The seed develop from the ovule. The ovules start to
grow with the zygote in each ovule.
 The zygote divides by mitosis forming an embryo
plant.

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Formation of the seed continues….
 The embryo plant consists of the radical (developing
root) and plumule (developing stem/shoot), between
a single or two cotyledons (seed lobes).
 The triploid endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly
by mitosis to form the endosperm which is the food
store.
 In the case dicotyledonous plant endosperm (food
store) is held in the cotyledons.
 The two layers that cover the ovule(integument)
develop into a tough, hard outer coat called a taste.
 The content of the taste (ovule) loses water, and the
whole structure become a seed.

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 THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE NON-ENDOSPERMIC SEED.
A tough seed Store food for the
coat embryo in the
protecting form of starch
the seed
from
mechanical
damage /
decompositio
n by bacteria Micropyle: a small hole
and fungi. which absorbs water
during germination.

Develop into the

shoot or leaf Develop into a
system root system
during
A BEAN SEED
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germination.
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 SEEDS AND FRUIT
 FRUITS: apart from protecting the seeds inside until
they are ripe. They also helps to disperse the seeds.
 DISPERSAL: is the spreading out of seeds and
fruits as far as possible from the parent plant.
Seeds and fruit can be dispersed through:
a) Wind dispersal
b) Animal dispersal
c) Water dispersal
d) Self dispersal

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TWO MAIN FUNCTIONS OF A
SEED IN A PLANT'S LIFE CYCLE
1.to get to new places that can be
colonised
 To avoid competition of water, light
minerals and soil
 Prevents overcrowding
 Help plants adapt better in new
environment
 Dispersal agents are wind, water and
animals

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2. to survive unfavourable conditions
in a dormant state.
 Dormancy: resting period for seed before
germination
 It allows the seed to survive long cold or dry
season
 Dormancy breaks when conditions are
favourable in the environment.

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 IMPORTANCES OF SEED AND FRUIT DISPERSAL
1. Reduces competition for resources among parents
and offspring due to overcrowding (i.e competition
for water, light, nutrient, space etc)
2. Allow plant to colonise new areas for them to grow
far from parents.
3. Broad distribution leading to increased
biodiversity.
4. Decrease the risk of spread of pests and diseases.
5. Reduce the risk of extinction of communities of
species in cases of natural disasters (i.e. fire, and
disease outbreak).

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WIND DISPERSAL: I.E. DANDELION &
SYCAMORE

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ADAPTAION OF WIND DISPERSAL SEEDS
AND FRUITS
 Very light in weight and small .
 Flattened wing-like structures to allow it to be
carried (blown) by wind.
 Some have feathery hair increasing surface are
“flight” over long distances i.e. dandelion seeds.
 Seed have increased buoyancy.

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ADAPTAION OF WIND DISPERSAL SEEDS
AND FRUITS

Dandelion
Sycamore
Milkweed

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 ANIMAL DISPERSAL: JUICY FRIT (BLACKBERRY,
STRAWBERRY): CATCHING ON FUR (GOOSEGRASS, BURDOCK).

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 ANIMAL DISPERSAL: JUICY FRIT (BLACKBERRY,
STRAWBERRY): CATCHING ON FUR (GOOSEGRASS, BURDOCK).

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 ADAPTATION OF ANIMAL DISPESAL
SEEDS AND FRUITS
 Coloured, sweet and juicy to attract birds (animals)
to eat them and be dropped in faeces I far places. i.e.
tomatoes, guava, and wild berries.
 Some have hooks to catch on the fur of mammals
and be dropped far away.
 Succulent fruits i.e. marula and strawberry have
seeds which can through the digestive system of
animals unharmed and are carried long distance
before deposited along with fertilizer on the ground.

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 WATER DISPERSAL: COCONUTS, WATTER LILY ETC

 Generally, light in weight and waterproof .

 Have large surface area for floating on water.

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SELF DISPERSAL: LIPIN SEEDPODS,
GERAINIUM FRUITS

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 ADAPTATION OF SELF DISPERSAL
SEEDS AND FRUITS

 Some plants have mechanisms which throw

seeds some distance from the parent plant.
 It depends on tension caused by drying out of the
fruit wall.
 The sweat pea suddenly split open and the two
halves curl outwards, scattering the seeds.
 Some fruits scatter their seeds by literally
exploding. The pod dries; bursts open and
forcibly shoot the seeds for several feet in all
directions. Mrs Haukena 61
 SEED GERMINATION

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 SEED GERMINATION
 Germination: is the onset of growth of the embryo
plant in the seed after a period of dormancy.
 Once the seed land on the suitable environment:
adequate water, oxygen and optimum
temperature; enzymes and stored food substances
are activated and the embryo plant start to grow.

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 STAGES OF GERMINATION
 The seed take up water through the micropyle.
 The cotyledon swell, causing the testa (seed coat) to
burst.
 This activate the enzymes to digest stored insoluble
nutrients such as protein, carbohydrate and fats into
soluble ones such as glucose, amino acids and fatty
acids.
 The soluble nutrients diffuse to the embryo plant to
provide energy and stimulate growth.
 The radicle develop into a root to absorb water from the
soil.
 The plumule develop into the shoot to absorb sunlight
and carry out photosynthesis.
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 SUMMARY: THE GENERAL LIFE
CYCLE OF A FLOWERING PLANT
1. PLANT GROWTH & 9. GROWTH OF AN
DEVELOPMENT EMBRYO PLANT

2. FLOWER FORMATION 8. SEED

GERMINATION

3. POLLINATION 7. SEED DISPERSAL

4.GROWTH OF POLLEN 6. FRUIT AND SEED

TUBE
FORMATION

5. DOUBLE
Mrs Haukena
FERTILIZATION 65
 ARE YOU ABLE TO????
DEFINE:
o A flower
o Pollination
o Fertilization
o Double fertilization
o Gametes
o Dispersal

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 ARE YOU ABLE TO????
LABEL:
o Flower parts
o Dicot seed parts

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ARE YOU ABLE TO????

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 ARE YOU ABLE TO????
DISTIQUISH:
o Self and cross pollination
o Unisexual and bisexual flower
o Stamen and carpel
o Insect and wind pollinated flower (adaptations)
o Animal, wind, water and self dispersal seeds
(adaptations)
COMPARE:
o Advantages and disadvantages of self and cross
pollination.

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 ARE YOU ABLE TO????
DESCRIBE:
o The process after pollination (growth of the
pollen tube)
o The process of double fertilization
o The process of seed germination
o The importance of seed dispersal

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
HUMANS

Mrs Haukena 71
 FOCUS OF THE TOPIC
 Male and female reproductive system
 Male and female Gametes
 The role of the sex hormone: oestrogen,
progesterone, testosterone, luteinizing hormone
(LH) and follicle stimulation hormone (FSH).
 Sexual intercourse, Fertilization, implantation
and development of the fetus
 Birth control and fertility
 Sexual transmitted diseases

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe the structure and function of human
male and female reproductive systems
(microscopic structures/sex hormones are not
required)
 Describe the roles of testosterone and oestrogen
in the development and regulation of secondary
sexual characteristics at puberty
 Describe the menstrual cycle
 Describe the sites of production and the roles of
oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual
cycle and in pregnancy

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe sexual intercourse, fertilization and
implantation indicate the functions of the
amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
 Describe the development of the fetus in terms
of placenta, maternal and fetal blood supplies
and exchange of materials
 Describe ante-natal care in terms of dietary
requirements and maintaining good health
 Describe birth
 Describe the advantage of breast-feeding
compared with bottle-feeding

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Name and describe the following methods of
birth control: natural, chemical, mechanical
and surgical
 Describe the hormonal control of ovulation and
the role of the contraceptive pill
 Discuss the social aspects of artificial
insemination and the use of hormones in
fertility drugs

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe the symptoms, signs, effects and
treatment of gonorrhea and syphilis
 Describe the methods of transmission of the
human immune-deficiency virus (HIV) and the
ways in which it can be prevented from
spreading
 Discuss the increased vulnerability of Namibians
to other illness due to the increased prevalence
of HIV and AIDS
 Outline the socio-economic consequences of the
HIV and AIDS pandemic for Namibia

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Is the type of reproduction that:
 Require two parents (male, the sperm and
female, the egg or ovum).
 Involves the fusion of female gamete (ova) and
male gamete (sperm) to form a zygote.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Produces the male gametes called sperm.
 Delivers the sperm to the cervix of the uterus in
the female for reproduction.

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THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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THE MALE Testes:
REPRODUCTI  2 hang outside the body.
 Produces sperms( spermatozoa;
VE SYSTEM male gamete/ sex cells).
CONSISTS OF:  Produce hormone testosterone
 Testes (2) ( male sex hormone).
 Scrotum
 Epididymis
Scrotum (scrotal sac):
 Sperm duct
 The skin that cover and holds the
 Glands: Seminal
vesicle & Cowper’s testis.
gland  Provides the right temperature
 Prostate gland optimum for sperm production
 Urethra around or lower than 37C°.
 Penis
 Erective tissue
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Epididymis:
 Store the sperms.
 Lies on top of the testes.

Sperm duct (vas deferens):

 The passage through which sperms travel to
different glands which add seminal fluid to
the sperm to form semen.
Glands: Seminal vesicle & Cowper’s gland:
 Produce and secrete seminal fluid which mix
with sperm to form semen.
 The fluid provides nutrients sucrose for
energy making sperm mobile and
preventing sperm from drying out.
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Prostate glands:
 adds seminal fluid to sperms.
 It helps with ejaculation of semen from the penis.
Ejaculation is the release of semen.
 It release prostate fluid which ensures maximum
mobility of sperm cells.
Urethra:
 Passes out semen during ejaculation and urine during
urination.
 Semen and urine never pass at same time.

Penis:
 Is the male organ which is inserted into the vagina
during sexual intercourse.
 For passage out urine
 Deposits or transfers the semen into vagina during
sexual intercourse.
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 NOTE THAT:

 Sperm together with seminal fluid

forms semen. Males therefore
release semen and not sperm.
  When semen is released from the
penis it is called ejaculation.
  The process when the penis is
inserted into the vagina is called
copulation or sexual intercourse.
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Procedure female gametes, the ova.
 Provides a suitable site for semen to be
deposited and the ovum to be
fertilized.
 It also provide a place for the zygote
to develop into a foetus.

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 Fallopian Tube/
Oviduct

Ovary Uterus Ovary

Cervix

Vagina

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 Ovary:
THE FEMALE  Are female sex organs that
REPRODUCTIVE produce, store and release
SYSTEM CONSIST OF: the female gametes called
 Ovary
ova or eggs.
 Produce female hormones
 Oviduct (fallopian
Oestrogen and
tube)
progesterone.
 Uterus
 Cervix
Oviduct (fallopian tube):
 vagina
 The place where
fertilization takes place.
 The passage through which
the egg passes from ovary to
the uterus.

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Cervix:
 Is the neck of the uterus
 The narrow passage that lead to the vagina.
 Separate the vagina and the uterus.
 It dilates (widens) during birth and forms a passage for the baby.

Uterus:
 A muscular organ richly supplied with blood vessels.
 Is the place where foetus (embryo) develop.
 It supplies the foetus with nutrients and oxygen, provides
protection and removes waste.
Vagina:
 A muscular tube.
 The place where sperms are deposited during sexual intercourse.

Vulva:
 The muscular walls, the opening of the vagina.

Clitoris:
 The sensitive part above the urethra.

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 MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES
 The gametes are
sex cells.
 The male gamete
is called a sperm.
 The female
gamete is called
the ovum or egg.
 Gametes are
haploid.

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 THE SPERM AND ITS ADAPTATION
Contain enzymes that are
released during fertilization

Contain the Containing chromosomes.

nucleus

Releasing energy to
power swimming by tail

Beats like a whip and drive s the

sperm forward.
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 THE STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF
SPERMATOZOA AND RELATE THEIR STRUCTURE
TO THEIR FUNCTIONS
 Consists of head, middle piece and tail.
 Head contains the nucleus.
 The nucleus is haploid (n) (contains only 23 chromosomes).
 In the head is a acrosome (modified Lysosomes).
 The acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes to digest a
path into the ovum.
 The middle piece has many mitochondria to release
(provide) energy.
 The energy is needed for the beating / movement of the
tail.
 In the tail is an axial filament from the middle piece to the
end for movement of the tail.

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FORMATION OF SPERMATOZOA (ONLY HIGHER
LEVEL)
 It occurs in the seminiferous tubules in the
testes.
 In the tubules are special cells called
germinal epithelium cells.
 They divide by mitosis to form primary
spermatocytes.
 Then first meiotic division form secondary
spermatocytes.
 They are haploid and then second meiotic
division form spermatids.
 The spermatids differentiate into
spermatozoa (mature sperm cells).
Mrs Haukena 98
FORMATION OF SPERMATOZOA (ONLY HIGHER
LEVEL)
 It is a continuous process that takes about 8
to 9 weeks.
 In the tubules are also Sertoli cells to feed
and nourish the sperm.
 The process of sperm formation is called
spermatogenesis.
 The process is controlled by the hormones
testosterone and FSH.
 The process is only possible at maturity after
puberty start.
Mrs Haukena 99
 THE EGG AND ITS ADAPTAION
 Bigger than the sperm, provide the food store that
support the embryo after fertilization.
 Nucleus with mother’s chromosomes.

Cytoplasm
containing York

Containing
chromosomes
Mrs Haukena 100 Layer of jelly
 STRUCTURE OF OVA
 Inside the ovum is a haploid nucleus (23
chromosomes).
 The ovum contains yolky cytoplasm with fats
and proteins as nourishment for developing
embryo.
 A jelly coat (zona pellucida) surrounds the
ovum to ensure that only one sperm
penetrates it.

Mrs Haukena 101

FORMATION OF OVA (ONLY HIGHER
LEVEL)
 The ovary is covered by germinal epithelium cells.
 Mitosis form many diploid primary oocytes.
 The oocytes become surrounded by follicle cells to form
a primary follicle. (stays like that until puberty)
 During puberty meiosis form haploid secondary oocytes.
 Each is in a swollen follicle called a Graafian follicle.
 The Graafian follicle burst open to release the ovum
during ovulation. (at birth about 200 000 primary
oocytes)
 Each month one develops into a mature ovum. (only
about 1% develop – the rest stay dormant)
 About 500 develop into ova.
 The process of ova formation is called oogenesis
Mrs Haukena 102
 Feature Sperm Egg
Size small Much large than
sperm
Movement Swims using tail that Does not move itself-
lashes from side to is moved along the
side oviduct by cilia and
peristalsis.
Food store Has very little-uses Protein and fat in
sugar in seminal fluid cytoplasm enough to
for reproduction last until implantation
In uterus.

Number of 23: haploid number 23; haploid number

chromosomes
Number produced Millions constantly One a month after
produced after puberty until
puberty often menopause, except
throughout life when pregnant or
taking contraceptive
Mrs Haukena pill. 103
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Copy and complete the table below

Structure Functions
Scrotum
Testes
Penis
Seminal vesicle
Epididymis
Elective tissue

Mrs Haukena 104

 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Copy and complete the table below

Structure Functions
Cervix
ovary
Penis
Uterus
oviduct

Mrs Haukena 105

 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Label letter A to F Using the table below,
describe the adaptations
of the sperm
A
Structure Function

E B A

C
C
D

Mrs Haukena 106

 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Using a ruled line, match the word in the left-hand
column with the correct description in the right-hand
column.
Testis Male sex cells

Sperm Male sex organ in animals

Ovary Female sex organ in animals

Fertilization A fertilized ovum

Zygote The biological name for a sex cell

Gamete Fusion of a male and female gamete

Ovum A fertilized ovum develops into this

Embryo Female sex cell

Mrs Haukena 107

 THE ROLE OF THE SEX HORMONES
 Female hormones are progesterone and
oestrogen produced in ovaries.
 Also luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH).
 Male hormone is Testosterone produced in
the testes.

Mrs Haukena 108

THE ROLE OF TESTOSTERONE IN
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SECONDARY CHARACTERISTICS IN
MALES

 Produced by the testes at

age of 12 to 14 years in
males.
 Transported in the blood
to different target organ.
 Regulates the
development of male
secondary sexual
characteristics.
Mrs Haukena 109
Mrs Haukena 110
THE ROLE OF TESTOSTERONE IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF SECONDARY CHARACTERISTICS IN MALES
 It causes the voice breaks and deepens as the
vocal cords elongate in the larynx.
 It causes muscular enlargements (development).
So the muscle increase in size and mass.
 Testosterone causes the enlargement of sex
organs (penis and testes).
 It causes the growth of facial hair, chest and
armpits.
 Pubic hair grows around the sex organs
 The testes start producing sperm.
 It cause behavioural changes such as moodiness.

Mrs Haukena 111

Mrs Haukena 112
 THE ROLE OF OESTROGEN IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY
CHARACTERISTICS IN FEMALES

 Control the development of

female secondary sexual
characteristics, start at age
of 10 to 12.
 Produced by the graafian
follicles in the ovary and
transported in the blood to
different target organs.

Mrs Haukena 113

Mrs Haukena 114
THE ROLE OF OESTROGEN IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF SECONDARY CHARACTERISTICS IN FEMALES
 Enlargement of breast, hips, thighs, buttocks
due to more fat deposits.
 Growth of hair in armpits.
 The sex organs (vagina, genitals, & uterus)
develop and enlarge.
 Pubic hairs grows around the sex organs.
 The ovaries start releasing ova.
 Menstruation starts.
 It can cause behavioural changes such as
moodiness
Mrs Haukena 115
Mrs Haukena 116
 My legs are getting longer
My feet are growing too
I'm starting to get pimples
I'm glad that you are too!

The boys are talking 'six packs'

The girls discussing bras
Make-up, fashion, friendships
Boys are mad on cars.

Confusing and exciting

The self I feel and see
I guess that I am changing
Into an adult me.
Mrs Haukena 117
Mrs Haukena 118
 HORMONE AND THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
MENSTRUAL CYCLE: CHANGES IN THE OVARIES & UTERUS
 The menstrual cycle only occurs in females.
 One cycle lasts 28 days : 4 weeks.
 The cycle begin in females at puberty (age 10 – 12) until
menopause (age 45 - 50).
 Controlled by the change of oestrogen and progesterone
level in the blood.
 NB: pituitary gland: produce hormones which stimulate
the ovaries to produce oestrogen and progesterone.
 It start with menstruation: is the discharge of blood and
mucous from the uterus, caused by the breaking down of
the uterus lining.
 Hormones involved: oestrogen, progesterone,
luteinising hormone (LH), Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH). Mrs Haukena 119
 HORMONE AND THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
MENSTRUAL CYCLE: CHANGES IN THE OVARIES &
UTERUS
 Menstruation can lasts about 4 to 5 days.
 During menstruation female hormones levels are low.
 After menstruation the oestrogen level rise preparing
for ovulation.
 By day 14 the endometrium (uterus lining) has
thickened and ovulation occurs.
 After ovulation the level of progesterone rise to
maintain the lining of the uterus for implantation to
occur between day 20 to 23.
 Fertilisation is mostly likely to occur 4 days after
ovulation.
 Fertilisation is least likely to occur 5 days before and 3
days after menstruation.Mrs Haukena 120
Mrs Haukena 121
oestrogen

Mrs Haukena 122

Mrs Haukena 123
Mrs Haukena 124
Mrs Haukena 125
Mrs Haukena 126
 THE MENSTRUATION CYCLE
1. The Follicle Stimulating Hormone
 Produced by the pituitary gland.
 Stimulate the growth of the graafian follicles to
maturity (in the ovary).
 In male, it helps in stimulating the formation of
sperms.
The graafian follicle begin to develop in the ovary,
during menstruation. After a week, the follicle start
producing oestrogen.
Oestrogen
 Cause the cells in the uterus lining to divide to builds
up; repairs and thickens the new lining after
menstruation.
 Stimulates the pituitary glands to produce LH .
 Peak on day 13 before ovulation.
Mrs Haukena 127
MENSTRUATION CYCLE CONTINUE….
2. Around day 14: ovulation occur. Ovulation is
the release of the ovum from the ovary into
the oviduct.
The ovum travels along the oviduct to the
uterus. If the sperms are present in the oviduct,
the egg become fertilised. If not fertilised, the
ovum passes out of the body.
Luteinising hormone (LH)
 Produced by the pituitary glands.
 Causes ovulation.
 Peak on day 14, during ovulation.

Mrs Haukena 128

 MENSTRUATION CYCLE CONTINUE….
3. After ovulation: the follicle develop into a
corpus leteum. It no longer produces oestrogen
but begins to produce progesterone.
Progesterone
 It maintain the uterus lining as a thick and
spongy layer ready to accept a fertilised ovum.
 Prevents the uterus lining from breaking
down in readiness for implantation of the
embryo.
 It inhibit the production of FSH by the
pituitary gland.
 If the level of progesterone fall; it cause the
uterus lining to break down leading to
menstruation. Mrs Haukena 129
MENSTRUATION CYCLE CONTINUE….
4. If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus
leteum gradually shrinks and produce less
progesterone. This results in the break down of
the uterus lining, so next menstruation
begins.
 If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus leteum
continues to produce progesterone,
maintaining the uterus lining for the
implantation of the zygote.
 After implantation and formation of the
placenta, the corpus leteum stop producing
progesterone and the placenta start producing
progesterone during pregnancy.
Mrs Haukena 130
Mrs Haukena 131
 CONCLUSION
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH):
 Stimulate the growth of the graafian follicle to mature in
the ovary.
 Stimulate the ovary to produce oestrogen.

OESTROGEN:
 Make the lining of the uterus thicker and spongier.

 Stimulate the release of LH by pituitary glands

LUTEINISING HORMONE (LH):

 Trigger ovulation.

 Stimulate the ovary to produce progesterone.

PROGESTERONE:
 Maintain (keep) the lining of the uterus thick and spongy.

 Inhibit the production of FSH

Mrs Haukena 132

 THE ROLE OF OESTROGEN &
PROGESTERONE IN PREGNANCY
OESTROGEN:
 Prepares the uterus lining for labour by
increasing the sensitivity of the uterus muscles,
so it is more likely to contract.
 It causes the lining of the vagina to become
thicker, stronger and have a better blood
supply to allow an easier passage or the baby
during birth.

Mrs Haukena 133

THE ROLE OF OESTROGEN & PROGESTERONE
IN PREGNANCY
PROGESTERONE:
 High levels maintain the thickness of the lining of
the uterus: pregnancy is maintained.
 Prevent menstruation from taking place.
 Inhibit the release of FSH by pituitary glands.
 It prevent egg cells (follicles) developing in ovary
 High level inhibit the contractions of the uterus
walls to help prevent abortion of the foetus.
 It prevent any further ovulation during
pregnancy.
 It prevent egg cells (follicles) developing in ovary
 It stimulates the development of secretory
tissues in the mammary glands in the breasts
Mrs Haukena 134
 PROCESSES OF:
1. SEXUAL INTERCOURSE
(COPULATION)

2. FERTILISATION

3. IMPLANTATION

Mrs Haukena 135

 SEXUAL INTERCOURSE (COPULATION)
 Is the transfer of the sperm as semen into the
woman’s vagina by the stiff and erect penis.
 Involve ejaculation: the movement of the
penis in the vagina, stimulate the release of
semen through the urethra, deposited near the
cervix of the uterus.
 Ejaculation is caused by the contraction of
muscle tissue in the sperm duct, seminal
vesicle, and prostate glands.
 Sexual intercourse results in pregnancy of the
egg is fertilised.
 About 3 to 5 cm3 of semen is expelled,
containing between 180 and 500 million
spermatozoa. Mrs Haukena 136
 FERTILISATION (CONCEPTION)
 Fertilisation is the fusion of the
sperm and the ovum in the oviduct.
 The sperm and ovum are haploid.
 The fertilized egg is called a diploid
zygote.
 The zygote divide by mitosis as it
move to the uterus and form an
embryo.
 The embryo travels for about 5-7
days to the uterus with the help of
cilia in the oviduct.
 The embryo sink in the uterus lining
described as implantation.
Mrs Haukena 137
FERTILISATION

Mrs Haukena 138

Mrs Haukena 139
OVULATION TO IMPLANTATION
EMBRYO

IMPLANTATION

FERTILIZATION

OVULATION

Mrs Haukena 140

Mrs Haukena 141
 IMPLANTATION
 Implantation is the process whereby the
embryo sinks into the soft lining of the uterus
wall.
 The zygote passes through the Fallopian tube
to the uterus through peristaltic movement
and cilia in the Fallopian tube, which make
flicking movements to sweep it forward.
 Mitosis takes place as the zygote moves toward
the uterus forming a round mass of cells called
the morula.
 The morula continues divide to form a mass of
cells around a central cavity called the
blastocyst.
Mrs Haukena 142
 IMPLANTATION
 The blastocyst reaches the uterus about 5 to 7
days, assisted by the flicking movement of the
cilia in the uterus.
 The blastocyst forms a ball of cells on its way
down the oviduct and become an embryo.
 The embryo secrete enzymes from its outer layer
of cells. The enzyme allows it to embed itself in
endometrium (uterus lining), this process is called
implantation.
 The period from implantation until birth (labour) is
called pregnancy (gestation), last for 9 months.
 The embryo develops into a foetus until birth
when is called a baby.
Mrs Haukena 143
Mrs Haukena 144
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FETUS

Zygote: the fertilizes

ovum

Embryo : zygote
under mitotic
division
Fetus : embryo
Morula; then
with recognized
blastocyst
limbs and eyes

A baby: after birth

Mrs Haukena 145

 TWINS & TRIPLES
 Twins are two babies born from the same
pregnancy.
 Twins can be dizygotics (non-identical or
Fraternal) or monozygotic (identical).
Identical twins:
 Are produced from one fertilised egg.
 One embryo splits into two cells.
 Each cell divides to form a separate foetus.
 They share the same placenta, develop in
separate amniotic sacs.
 The two embryos are genetically identical.
 They are always of the same sex.

Mrs Haukena 146

One egg released and
fertilised

Zygote divide into

two during mitosis

Identical twins in
the same placenta,
different embryo sac
Mrs Haukena 147
Mrs Haukena 148
Mrs Haukena 149
 TWINS & TRIPLES
Non- identical twins
 Occur when a woman releases two eggs at the
same time.
 The eggs are fertilised by different sperm.
 Two zygotes that are produced are genetically
different.
 They can be the same sex or different sex.
 They have separate placentas and develop in
separate amniotic sacs.

Mrs Haukena 150

Different eggs fertilised

Different zygotes develop

and implant

Non-identical twins with

different placenta

Mrs Haukena 151

Mrs Haukena 152
 TWINS & TRIPLES
Triplets
 Two egg cells are released at the same time.
 Both get fertilised by two different sperms.
 One zygote divide and split into two develop
into identical twins.
 The other zygote develop into another different
embryo.
 So three embryo implant into the uterus lining
called triplets.
 Two which are identical and one not.

Mrs Haukena 153

 Ovary release two eggs
at same time

FORMATION OF TWINS OR TRIPLETS

Fertilization

Diploid zygote

Embryo
Two identical
embryo
Third twin- non
identical
Identical twins
Mrs Haukena Triplets 154
Mrs Haukena 155
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS
The placenta:
Is the thick and spongy part of the uterus lining where
the embryo embedded.
Have 2 arteries carry blood from the foetus to the
placenta.
Have one vein carry blood from the placenta to the
foetus.
The placenta prevent the mother and fetus blood to mix:

Reasons:
o Mother and fetus have different blood groups.

oThe mother blood pressure is too high may cause the

foetus blood vessels to burst
oMother may contain pathogen that can be passed to the
foetus
Mrs Haukena 156
Mrs Haukena 157
Mrs Haukena 158
Mrs Haukena 159
 Uterus:
Is the organ which holds the foetus during
pregnancy.
Has thick muscular walls.
Its size and thickness increase during
pregnancy
Umbilical cord:
Formed by two arteries and one vein
together with connective tissue.
It forms the connection between the placenta
to the foetus.
It connects the placenta to the navel of the
foetus.
Mrs Haukena 160
 Amnion or amniotic sac:
Is a strong membrane that surrounds the
foetus during pregnancy.
It keeps the amniotic fluid inside.

Amniotic fluid
The amniotic fluid surrounds the foetus
during pregnancy.

Mrs Haukena 161

 FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA DURING
PREGNANCY
Perform two main functions:
Act as an endocrine gland
Allow the exchange of substances between
mother and fetus blood system as well as keep
them separate.

Mrs Haukena 162

THE PLACENTA AS AN ENDOCRINE GLAND
Produce hormones : oestrogen and progesterone during
pregnancy.
Oestrogen:
Increase the sensitivity of the uterus muscles for
contractions during birth (labour).
Thicken the lining of the vagina and make it tougher to
allow the passage during birth
So it prepares the uterus for birth (labour).
Progesterone:
Maintains the thickness of the uterus.

Stimulates the development of secretory tissues in the

breasts to produce milk.
Inhibits the contraction of uterus muscles.

Inhibits the release of FSH by pituitary glands.

Inhibits ovulation during pregnancy.

Mrs Haukena 163
PLACENTA IN EXCHANGE OF SUBSTANCES
Substances needed by the foetus diffuse
across the placenta from mother to the
foetus:
Oxygen, and nutrients: glucose, lipids, amino
acids, vitamins and minerals
Also allows antibodies to the foetus for
passive immunity :defence against diseases
Substances that are not needed, waste
materials diffuse across the placenta from the
foetus to mother: Urea, and carbon dioxide.

Mrs Haukena 164

 OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA
DURING PREGNANCY

The placenta also prevent viruses such as

HIV from passing through the foetal blood. HIV
can pass through the placenta from the
mother to the foetus, if it is damaged during
pregnancy.
The placenta forms a barrier between the
blood systems, preventing maternal and foetal
blood system from mixing.

Mrs Haukena 165

Mrs Haukena 166
 Functions of the Umbrical cord during
pregnancy
 Forms the connection between the placenta
and the foetus.
 One vein inside the cord takes substances to
the foetus from the placenta.
 Two arteries takes substances from the foetus
to the placenta.
Functions of the Amniotic sac during
pregnancy:
Completely covers the foetus and contains the
amniotic fluid.
It secretes (produces) amniotic fluid.
It prevents the entry of pathogens from the
Mrs Haukena 167
 Functions of the Amniotic fluid during
pregnancy:
The foetus floats in the amniotic fluid.
It allows the of foetus to move.
Is where the foetus urinate.
Protect the foetus from mechanical shocks
and bumps.
Helps to maintain temperature by minimising
temperature changes.
It prevent drying out of the foetus
It provides a sterile environment for the
foetus.
It keeps the foetus in a space free from
pressure and gravity.
Mrs Haukena 168
 ANTE-NATAL CARE
A balanced diet is essential to provide all the
nutritional needs of foetus. No additional
energy or other food components are needed
until the last three months of pregnancy.
Important dietary requirements before birth
or during pregnancy:
Sufficient protein for cell division and
growth of the foetus and for milk production
Reduced fat: it is difficult to digest and
mother can become overweight.
Reduced sugar: the mother is less active so
less energy is used.
Mrs Haukena 169
 ANTE-NATAL CARE
Calcium for build strong bones and teeth and
milk production
Vitamin D for the formation of bones and
teeth
Iron for the formation of fetal haemoglobin
and prevent anaemia in mother
Phosphorous for bone formation of the
foetus.
Folic acid supplements during first 3 months:
to prevent nueral tube defects (spina bifida)

Mrs Haukena 170

 PROCESS OF BIRTH
9 months or 280 days after fertilization (40
weeks).
The foetus lies head down with the head next to
the cervix.
Caused by the contraction of the uterus that
push the fetus toward the cervix.
The contraction is due to hormone oxytocin
from the pituitary gland.
The cervix opening starts to dilate.
The mucus plug is pushed out.
The amniotic sac raptures and release the
amniotic fluid.
The uterus keep on contracting.
Mrs Haukena 171
 PROCESS OF BIRTH
Pushes the foetus out of the cervix into the
vagina.
The baby cry after birth. It is essential to fill
the lungs with air, for baby to breathe on its
own.
The umbilical cord is then cut after birth.
New contraction pushes the detached
placenta, membranes, and Umbrical cord out.
The expelled tissue is known as the
afterbirth.

Mrs Haukena 172

Mrs Haukena 173
Mrs Haukena 174
 CAESAREAN SECTION
A caesarean section is the surgical removal of
the baby from the womb.
This is necessary whenever a normal birth
proves especially difficult or life threatening to
mother and child.
It is done when a baby is, for example, so
large that it cannot pass through the pelvic
bones, or when the mother’s pelvis is so small
that it cannot accommodate the baby.

Mrs Haukena 175

Mrs Haukena 176
Mrs Haukena 177
 COMPARING BREAST-FEEDING WITH BOTTLE
FEEDING
Breast feeding is important. The hormone
prolactin stimulates the growth and
development of the mammary glands and milk
ducts. It prepares for milk production and
lactation.
ADAVANTAGES OF BREAST-FEEDING
 Breast-feeding provides complete and most
suitable food for the baby.
 Are always at the correct temperature
 Contain protective antibodies: to provide
passive natural immunity.
 Are more convenient, always available and no
preparation is needed.
Mrs Haukena 178
 COMPARING BREAST-FEEDING
WITH BOTTLE FEEDING
ADAVANTAGES OF BREAST-FEEDING
 Are easy to digest than bottle milk that gives
constipation.
 Contains no additives.
 By breast feeding the baby feel safe and
develop a sense of security as well as mother
and baby good relationship.
 Breast-feeding can protect the mother against
breast and ovarian cancer.

Mrs Haukena 179

 COMPARISON: BREAST-FEEDING
WITH BOTTLE-FEEDING
BREAST-FEEDING
 Always the correct
temperature.
 Contains protective
antibodies.
 More convenient and always
available.
 Free of charge
 Digested more easily
 Free of harmful pathogen-
sterile.
 Suckling from breast helps
baby to feel safe and
develops a sense of security.
Mrs Haukena
BOTTLE-FEEDING/MILK
 Needs to be heated or cooled
to correct temperature.
 Contains no protective
antibodies.
 Sometimes not available in
shops.
 Very expensive
 More difficult to Digest
 Can contain harmful
pathogen.
 Suckling from a bottle lets
baby to feel less safe and do
not help to develop a sense of
security.
180
 METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL AND INCREASING
FERTILITY
Learning outcomes:
 Name and describe the following methods of birth
control: natural, chemical,mechanical and
surgical
 Describe the hormonal control of ovulation and
the role of the contraceptive pill
 Discuss the social aspects of artificial
insemination and the use of hormones infertility
drugs
STUDY THE CONTENT IN THE HAND OUT GIVEN

Mrs Haukena 181

 SEXUAL TRANSMITED DISEASES (STDs)
Learning outcomes:
 Describe the symptoms, signs, effects and
treatment of gonorrhoea and syphilis
 Describe the methods of transmission of the
human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) and the
ways in which it can be prevented from
spreading
 Discuss the increased vulnerability of Namibians
to other illness due to the increased prevalence
of HIV and AIDS
 Outline the socio-economic consequences of the
HIV and AIDS pandemic for Namibia
Mrs Haukena 182
SEXUAL TRANSMITTED DISEASES
 Abbreviated as STDs also known as sexual
transmitted infections
 Sexual transmitted disease is a disease
caused by pathogens.
 They are transmitted during sexual
intercourse.
 Common STDs in Namibia are syphilis,
gonorrhoea and AIDs

Mrs Haukena 183

 GONORRHOEA
 Is transmitted during unprotected sexual
intercourse with an infected person.
 It is caused by a bacteria called Neisseria
gonorrhoea
 The bacteria multiply in the body and later
cause gonorrhoea.
Prevention of gonorrhoea
 Abstainace
 Using condoms during sexual intercourse
 Health education

Treatment of gonorrhoea
 Use of antibiotics i.e. Penicillin to kill bacteria.

Mrs Haukena 184

SYMPTOMS OF GONORRHOEA

Mrs Haukena 185

 SYMPTOMS OF GONORRHOEA
IN MALES:
 Difficult in passing urine
 Burning sensation when passing urine due to
urethra infection
 A thick yellow discharge from the penis

IN FEMALES
 Vaginal discharge (thick discharge from the vagina)
 Pain in the lower part of the abdomen

Mrs Haukena 186

 EFFECTS OF GONORRHOEA
IN MALES:
 Blockage of the sperm duct that may lead to
infertility.
 Prostate gland infection resulting in difficulty in
urinating.

IN FEMALES:
 Blockage of the oviduct that may lead to
infertility
 Causes blindness to the baby when bacterium is
passed from the mother to child during birth
 Babies may die soon after birth

Mrs Haukena 187

 SYPHILIS
 Is transmitted during unprotected sexual
intercourse with an infected person.
 It is caused by a bacteria called Trepanema
pallidum
 The bacteria multiply in the body and later cause
syphilis.
 It develops through three stages

Prevention of syphilis
 Abstainace
 Using condoms during sexual intercourse
 Health education

Treatment of syphilis
 Use of antibiotics i.e. Penicillin to kill bacteria.
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SYMPTOMS OF SYPHILIS

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 SYMPTOMS OF SYPHILIS
STAGE 1: 10 to 20 days or 3 weeks after infection
 Small painless sore appears on penis or vulva
 Sore disappear but bacteria are still in the body
multiplying

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 SYMPTOMS OF SYPHILIS
STAGE 2: 6 weeks to 6 months
 Red skin rashes develop painless not itching
 Glands(lymph) become swollen
 Fever and flu-like symptoms
 Symptoms disappear but bacteria are still in the
body multiplying

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 SYMPTOMS OF SYPHILIS
STAGE 3: 6 months to 10 years later
 Damage of the nerve system leading to blindness
 Damage to the heart
 Lead to death if no treatment

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 EFFECTS OF SYPHILIS
 Serious brain damage leading to insanity
(madness)
 Blindness
 Paralysis
 Death
 Miscarriage
 Giving birth to blind baby

Mrs Haukena 193

 HIV & AIDS
 Is caused by the virus called HIV
 HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
 AIDS: Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

It is transmitted during:
 unprotected sexual intercourse with an
infected person
 Blood transfusion
 Sharing contaminated needles and syringes with
an infected person.
 Breast feeding from infected mother
 Pregnant woman across the damage placenta
 Any blood conduct with infected person
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Mrs Haukena 195
 SYMPTOMS OF AIDS
No specific symptoms but generally brings
 Fever and lost of appetite
 Fatigue (extreme tiredness)
 Diarrhoea lasting longer than a month
 Loss of weight
 Headaches
 Neck stiffness
 Chronic coughing
 Chest pains
 Impaired vision
 Madness
 Skin sore and rash
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 TREATMENTS OF AIDS
There is no cure and vaccine for AIDS, only help
to prolong life.
 ARVs: antiretroviral drugs that prolong a person’s
life even though will die at the end.
 Antibiotics: to weaken the cell walls and
cytoplasm of bacteria cause them to burst, but not
viruses.

Mrs Haukena 199

 EFFECTS OF AIDS
 The virus destroy the immune
system(white blood cells).
 Cause the person not to be able to
defend or fight any other diseases such
as flu, TB, pneumonia
 So the person dies due to these
opportunistic infections or diseases.

Mrs Haukena 200

Mrs Haukena 201
 PREVENTION OF AIDS
 Abstain from sexual intercourse
 Using condoms during sexual intercourse
(safe sex)
 Use sterilised needles, not sharing
 Test blood before blood transfusion
 Health education showing the dangers,
transmission, prevention and control of AIDS

Mrs Haukena 202

VULNERABILITY OF NAMIBIANS TO
OTHER ILLNESS DUE TO HIV & AIDS
 HIV virus attack the immune system and weaken
it, as it destroy the white blood cells.
 This results in less antibody production and less
Phagocytosis
 Therefore the immune system will be unable to
fight against other opportunistic diseases and
lead to death due to AIDS.
 Diseases such as: Tuberculosis(TB), Pneumonia
and chronic herpes.
 We are highly vulnerable due to high rate of
promiscuity(many sexual partners), alcoholism
and poverty.
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 SOCIAL & ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES
OF THE HIV/AIDS PANDEMIC
Social problems:
 Orphans are increasing as parents die and leaving
children behind leading to child headed-families.
 Stigmatism: those having AIDS treated badly at
school, work or in community.
 Families and communities can not functions as
young and middle age people die from AIDS.
 Families suffer as they lose loved ones.

Mrs Haukena 204

 SOCIAL & ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES
OF THE HIV/AIDS PANDEMIC
Economic problems:
 Young and middle people dying from AIDS: they
are active work force of the country, leading to
fall in economic growth.
 Unhealthy workforce results in low production
and less food for the Namibian population.
 Indirect costs due to recruit and replace workers
 Cost from the government to support orphans,
disturb the budget.
 Cost of anti-retroviral drugs become a burden on
the government as they are expensive.

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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Labe the following A to H [8]

B
A

E
G
F H

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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
a) State the function(s) of parts D, G and H [4]
b) Name the hormone produce by part H [1]
c) What are the effect of the hormone named in
b) of the body [4]
d) Which part on the figure in the previous slide
cut during surgical method [1]
e) How does the surgical method prevent
pregnancy occurrence [1]

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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
2. Labe the following A to G [6]

B F B
C

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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
3. Name the two hormones produced by the part
labelled B [2]
4. State another function played by part D apart
from production of hormones [1]
5. State the functions of the hormones you
mentioned in question number 3. [2]
6. On the diagram on the previous slide, label with
letter x to show the position where fertilization
can occur. [1]

Mrs Haukena 209

 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
8. The diagram shows developing fetus and the
placenta.
A

a) Label part A to D [4]

b) What is the functions of the amniotic sac and fluid? [4]
c) Name any two substances that are transported in
higher concentration from the mother to the fetus [2]
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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
d) One of the function of the placenta is that it act
as an endocrine gland. Explain the meaning of
endocrine gland. [2]
d) Name the hormones produced by the placenta
and their functions [4]
e) Explain why is not possible for a female to
ovulate during pregnancy? [1]
f) State 3 advantages of breast feeing over bottle-
feeding [3]
g) Describe the symptoms and effects of syphilis in
females [5]

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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
The graph shows the change in level of
hormones during menstruation cycle
LH

Oestrogen

FSH Progesterone

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 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
a) State the functions of the hormone FSH [2]
b) What is the process likely to happen on day 14
c) Why the level of LH peak on day 14 [1]
d) With the reference to the graph describe the
functions of oestrogen and progesterone. [4]
e) Using the graph, Which day do you think this
person menstruation start and why? [2]
f) Assume a certain girl started menstruation on
10th of March. What will be the next ovulation,
risk days, menstruation? [3]
g) What is mean by gestation period? How long
does it last in humans?
Mrs Haukena 213
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Explain the meaning of the following:
a) Menstruation
b) Ovulation
c) Implantation
d) Miscarriage
Describe what happens to each of the following
during the birth of a baby:
e) The muscle of the uterus
f) The cervix
g) The amniotic sac and amnion

Mrs Haukena 214

 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Copy and complete the following sentences using the
words below:
Zygote sexual ovaries uterus
Sperm cells vagina weeks embryo
Fertilisation implants
Sperm cells enter the ____ of the female during ______
intercourse. The sperm cells swim through the cervix
and up through the _____ and then enter the oviduct.
An egg is made in one of the _____ about every four
_____. The egg passes into the oviduct where _____
may take place if ______ are present. The fertilised
egg or ______ divides to form an _____ which passes
down to the uterus where it ______ in the lining of the
uterus.
Mrs Haukena 215