Solar Photovoltaic Power

Generation
19-EE
EED, UET Taxila
Solar Energy?
Solar energy is the energy derived from sunlight. The sun powers our planet,
providing the necessary energy to keep our environment and population growing

The amount of sunlight that reaches the earth’s atmosphere is enough to power all
of our needs

According to the US Department of Energy, 173,000 terawatts of solar energy strike

the earth continuously, which is more than 10,000 times the world’s total energy use

Solar energy can be used to provide heat, light, and other electricity-dependent
needs in homes and buildings
Why Solar Energy?
The ever-increasing demand of electricity due to modernization, urbanization and
rapid industrialization has resulted in a global energy crisis especially in developing
countries

At present, 80% of the global primary energy supply comes from fossil fuels which
are depleting at a faster rate

Moreover, these sources of energy are responsible for carbon dioxide (CO 2) gas
emissions which increased from 19,074.5 million tons to 34,032.7 million tons from
1981 to 2011

Therefore, development, adaption, and dissemination of low carbon technologies

has become a priority to satisfy energy needs and reduce CO 2 emissions
 Solar energy is one of the most recognized
alternatives to provide clean, renewable, and low-
cost energy for a wide range of application areas

Solar energy does not pollute air or water, and

does not contribute to global warming

Why Solar
Energy? Solar electricity can be used to reduce the
dependence on complex transmission and
distribution networks

Solar energy is abundant, inexhaustible and freely

available in most parts of the world
Total universal power consumption vs sun power
 Solar energy can be harnessed by different
technologies including:

Solar Photovoltaic Cells which convert sunlight

How to directly into electricity (in dc form)

harness
Solar Solar Thermal Collectors which extract the heat
from the sunrays using water or other heat transfer
Energy? fluids

Hybrid Photovoltaic/thermal collectors which use a

combination of solar photovoltaic cells and solar
thermal collectors to produce a hybrid output
A map of Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)
 Solar cell, also called photovoltaic (PV) cell, is the device
that directly converts the energy of light into electrical
energy through the photovoltaic effect

Most of the solar cells are fabricated from silicon ranging

from amorphous (non-crystalline) to polycrystalline to

Solar Cells crystalline (single crystal) silicon forms

Solar cells can be arranged into large groupings called

modules and arrays. The arrays, composed of many
modules having thousands of individual cells, can function
as central electric power stations, converting sunlight into
electrical energy for distribution to industrial, commercial,
and residential users
 • The photovoltaic effect can be defined as being
the appearance of a potential difference
(voltage) between two layers of a
semiconductor slice in which the conductivities
are opposite, or between a semiconductor and
a metal, under the effect of a light stream

Photovoltaic • It was first observed in 1839 by a French

scientist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
Effect • In 1870, the PV effect was studied in selenium,
and the results indicated that the power
efficiency by solid selenium was only 1%–2%
• In 1950, crystalline silicon with high purity was
developed; in 1954, silicon PV cell with the
converting efficiency of 4% was developed in
Bell Labs
Photovoltaic Effect in a Solar Cell
 • Let’s assume a block of silicon crystal.
The upper portion of this block is doped
with donor impurities (n-type) and lower
portion is doped with acceptor impurities
(p-type).
Physics of • The concentration of free electrons is
quite high in n-type region compared to
Solar Cells p-type region and concentration of holes
is quite high in p-type region compared
to n-type region of the block.
• There will be a high concentration
gradient of charge carriers across the
junction line of the block.
 • Free electrons from n-type region try to diffuse to p-
type region and holes in p-type region try to diffuse
to n-type region in the crystal.
• This happens because charge carriers by nature
always tend to diffuse from high concentration
region to low concentration region.

Physics of • Each free electron of n-type region while coming to

the p-type region due to diffusion leaves a positive
Solar Cells donor ion behind it in the n-type region.
• This is because each of the free electron in n-type
region is contributed by one neutral donor atom.
• Similarly, when a hole is diffused from p-type region
to n-type region, it leaves a negative acceptor ion
behind it in p-type region.
 • The positively charged donor ions and
negatively charged acceptor ions are immobile
and fixed at their position in crystal structure
• These positive and negative ions concentration
layer creates an electric field across the junction
Physics of which is directed from positive to negative that
is from n-type side to p-type side
Solar Cells • Due to presence of this electric field charge
carriers in the crystal experience a force to drift
according to the direction of this electric field
• the positively charged holes (if any) in n-type
region now drift to the p-side of the junction
 • Negatively charged electrons in p-type region (if
any) drift to n-region as negative charge always
drift opposite to the direction of electric field.
• Across a p-n junction diffusion and drift of
charge carriers continues.

Physics of • Diffusion of charge carriers creates and

increases the thickness of the potential barrier
Solar Cells across the junction and drift of the charge
carriers reduces the thickness of the barrier.
• In normal thermal equilibrium condition and in
absence of any external force, the diffusion of
charge carrier is equal and opposite of drift of
charge carriers hence the thickness of potential
barrier remains fixed.
 • The n-type surface of the silicon crystal block is
exposed to the sunlight.
• When sunlight falls on the exposed surface,
some of the photons are absorbed by the silicon
block.
• Some of the absorbed photons have energy
Physics of greater than the energy gap between valence
Solar Cells and conduction band of valence electrons of the
silicon atoms.
• Hence, some of the valence electrons in the
covalent bond will be excited and jump out from
the bond leaving behind a hole in the bond.
• In this way electron-hole pairs are generated in
the crystal due to incident light.
 • The holes of these light generated electron-hole
pairs in the n-type side have enough probability of
recombination with enormous electrons (majority
carriers).
• The solar cell is so designed, that the light-
generated electrons or holes will not get enough
chances to recombine with majority carriers.
Physics of • The silicon is so doped that the p-n junction forms in
Solar Cells very close vicinity of exposed surface of the cell.
• If an electron hole pair is created within one minority
carrier diffusion length, of the junction, the electrons
of electron-hole pair will drift toward n-type region
and hole of the pair will swept to p region due to in
influence of electric field of the junction and hence
on the average, it will contribute to current flow in an
external circuit.
Series and Parallel Connections of Solar Cells
 • Solar cells are generally classified into
four generations depending on different
factors like chronological order,
manufacturing/labor costs, and
categories of materials that are used for
their fabrication
Types of • Presently, there is concurrent research
Solar Cells into all four generations, but the first-
generation technologies are the most
highly represented in current commercial
production
• However, the aims of research in all PV
generations are similar, which include
 • Utilizing less semiconductor material by
making thinner cells or using less expensive
semiconductor materials
• Increasing material utilization by reducing
waste in semiconductor material during PV cell
fabrication
Types of • Increasing energy flux on the PV
cells/modules by using less cost solar
Solar Cells concentrators without adding optical losses
• Increasing solar radiation utilization by
absorbing the valuable portion of the solar
spectrum efficiently
• Increasing speed and throughput of
manufacturing processes
 • The first-generation PV technologies are based on
silicon, one of the earth’s abundant materials with a
suitable band gap of 1.1 eV to harness solar energy
• The purity of the silicon decides the efficiency and
performance of the solar cells.
First • First-generation technologies involve high energy
Generation and labor inputs, which prevent any significant
progress in reducing production costs.
Solar Cells • Depending on the characteristics of the silicon and
the corresponding growth processes, first-
generation silicon PV cells can be distinguished into
mono-crystalline silicon, poly-crystalline silicon,
ribbon-technology, and heterojunction silicon PV
cells
 • Monocrystalline silicon solar cells are the most popular,
oldest, and most widely used technology made from pure
silicon on thin wafers of silicon.
• Mono-crystalline silicon wafers are manufactured through
slow and carefully controlled conditions. This makes them
Mono- one of the most expensive types of solar cells, with a
higher conversion efficiency of 25%.

Crystalline • The fabrication of crystalline silicon solar cells starts with

a clean silicon wafer, usually 300 μm thick, followed by
Silicon an antireflection coating.
• A top emitter layer is then added through the thermal
Solar Cells diffusion process.
• Next, the edge isolation is used to create an electrical
pathway and thin dielectric coating at the front and back
of the wafers to passivate surface defects.
• The electrical connections are finally made through
suitable metal electrodes by different methods
 • Poly-crystalline silicon solar cells can be
manufactured from mono-crystalline silicon
either by Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) or
Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
(PECVD).
Poly- • Owing to reduced complexity and reduced
Crystalline lifetime degradation, PECVD is preferred over
CVD technology
Silicon • Most commercial poly-crystalline silicon cells
have lower efficiencies than their mono-crystal
Solar Cells counterparts.
• One of the main reasons for this is the lack of a
cost-effective method of texturing poly-
crystalline silicon, which is relatively
straightforward in single-crystal cells
 • Most commercial multi-crystalline cells have
average efficiencies of around 15%
• In March 2008, Mitsubishi Electric Company
reported the highest world record
Poly- conversion efficiency of 18.6% in a 150-mm
square cell.
Crystalline • Due to surface defects, poly-crystalline
Silicon silicon solar cells absorb less solar
radiation, which results in larger PV
Solar Cells modules for the same electrical output
• They are not preferred if limited space is
available for installation purposes as they
produce less energy per unit surface area.
 • Ribbon Silicon PV cells are made of silicon nitrate,
which is usually deposited on aluminum by PECVD.
• Due to the elimination of the slicing process and
more economical material consumption, ribbon
technology is less costly than crystalline silicon PV
Ribbon cells.

Silicon PV • However, grain boundaries and non-uniform

dislocation densities and impurities (mainly carbon
Cells and/or oxygen) result in low efficiency of 14%
• Therefore, the growth expects significant cell
efficiency improvement and reduction of production
cost of Edge-defined Film-fed Growth (EFG)
cylinders, which causes thinner and more uniform
wafers
Mono and Poly-crystalline silicon solar cells
 • Second-generation PV cells have been developed
to address PV cells' energy requirements and
production costs.
• These cells are single-junction thin-film that use less
material while maintaining the efficiency of the first-
generation PV technology.
Second • Second-generation PV cells are fabricated by
Generation depositing skinny layers of PV materials on a low-
cost backing such as glass, stainless steel, or
Solar Cells plastic
• Thin-film PV technology holds the promise of higher
conversion efficiency and offers hope for
significantly cheaper production costs because less
semiconductor material is required.
• The second PV cell technology includes the
following:
 • Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV cells are composed of silicon
atoms in a thin homogenous layer rather than a crystal
structure.
• One of the advantages of amorphous silicon-based PV cells is
their excellent spectral response to the blue wavelengths
between 400 and 500 nm, found under diffuse irradiance
Amorphous conditions
• Amorphous silicon cells are commonly deposited by PECVD
Silicon methods and can achieve a laboratory conversion efficiency of
9.5%

Solar Cells • Commercial a-Si-based PV modules typically exhibit stabilized

conversion efficiencies in the range of 6–8%.
• The primary factor limiting the performance of a-Si PV modules
is the light-induced degradation since most modules degrade
about 12–20% before reaching a steady state
• The high capital cost of the manufacturing equipment and
facilities is another factor that limits a-Si PV modules
 • The hetero-junction with Intrinsic Thin layer (HIT) PV
cell is a relatively new technology in which cheap
Hetero- amorphous silicon is deposited on crystalline silicon
by the PECVP method
Junction • The structure of the HIT PV cell is such that the
back of the wafer is coated with highly n-doped
with amorphous silicon to prevent the free charge
carriers from recombining on the back electrode.
Intrinsic • Recombination loss occurs when the negative
Thin Layer electron and positive hole produced within the PV
cell combine and disappear, causing a loss in the
Silicon electrical current produced by the cell and hence a
decrease in the overall output of the PV cell.
Solar Cells • The mass production of HIT PV cells started in
1997, with a conversion efficiency of 17.3% on a
100 cm2 cell
 • Cadmium telluride (CdTe) PV technology
is based on the use of cadmium telluride
thin-film, a semiconductor layer designed
to absorb solar radiation more efficiently.
• Owing to its optoelectronic and chemical
Cadmium properties, CdTe is an ideal material for
Telluride PV high efficiency, low-cost thin-film PV cells
• However, the main problem with CdTe
Cells PV cell technology is the toxicity of the
material involved and the limited known
resources of the tellurium element.
• The best laboratory CdTe PV cell has
demonstrated an efficiency of 16.5%
 • A copper indium gallium selenide solar cell,
abbreviated as a CIGS cell, is a thin-film solar
cell manufactured by depositing a thin layer of
Copper copper, indium, gallium, and selenium on glass
or plastic backing, along with electrodes on the
Indium front and back to collect current
• GIGS technology is the most promising of all
Gallium the PV cell technologies for cost-effective power
Selenide generation due to the advantages of low-cost,
high-rate semiconductor deposition over large
Solar Cells areas and the high efficiencies.
• The most favorable deposition method for the
commercial manufacturing of CIGS modules is
vacuum co-evaporation.
 • All the constituents: Cu, In, Ga, and Se, can
be simultaneously transferred to a substrate
Copper • Soda-lime glass has been found to be the most
common substrate material used for CIGS cells
Indium due to its availability in large quantities at a low
cost, whereas Molybdenum (Mo) is the most
Gallium commonly used electrical back contact material
Selenide for CIGS solar cells
• The CIGS cell manufactured by the National
Solar Cells Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has been
reported to demonstrate the highest efficiency
of 19.9% with a 0.5 cm2 total area
 • Third generation photovoltaic cell technology
includes a range of novel alternatives to first-
generation (silicon p-n junction cells) and
second-generation (thin film) cells.

Third • It is a more advanced version of thin-film solar

cells.
Generation • Research and development in third-generation
PV cells aim to provide higher efficiency and
Solar Cells lower cost per Watt of electricity generated.
• The third generation PV technology is
concerned with exceeding the theoretical
Shockley-Queisser efficiency limits and includes
the following
 • Dye-sensitized PV Cell (DPVC) belongs to a
relatively new class of low-cost PV cells based on a
semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized
anode and an electrolyte.
• The top electrode is made by screen-printing a layer
of Titanium Oxide (TiO2) onto fluorine-doped Tin
Dye- Oxide (SnO2) coated glass and a dye applied to the
TiO2
Sensitized • In 2004, the rapid development of this technology
Solar cells was observed, and overall efficiencies of 10.2% and
10.6% were reported for cells produced with small
active areas.
• However, although such cells appear to be cheaper,
an additional effort is still required to overcome
stability problems upon exposure to the field
conditions.
 • Some studies have shown that the significant factors
affecting the stability of DPVCs are related to the dye and
electrolyte composition
• The working principle of DPVCs is entirely different from
conventional solar cells.
• They work through excitonic electron-hole pair generation
Dye- upon light illumination and dissociation, leading to a
charge separation at the nano-interface.
Sensitized • The absorption of photons and electron transport is
mediated via two dissimilar constituents, viz. dyes, and n-
Solar cells type nanocrystalline TiO2, respectively.
• The holes are transported through a hole-transporting
material (HTM), which could be one of the following: a
redox liquid electrolyte, ion-conducting polymeric
electrolyte (quasi-solid state), quantum dot sensitized,
hole conducting conjugated polymer material or small
molecules (solid-state)
Dye-sensitized solar cells
 • A typical organic PV (OPV) cell consists of one or
several photoactive materials sandwiched between
two electrodes.
• Light is absorbed in the photoactive layers
composed of donor and acceptor semiconducting
organic materials in a bilayer device to generate
photocurrents.
Organic • The donor material donates electrons and mainly
Solar Cells transports holes, and the acceptor material
withdraws electrons and mainly transports
electrons.
• Due to the concentration gradient, the excitons
diffuse to the donor/acceptor interface (exciton
diffusion) and separate into free holes (positive
charge carriers) and electrons (negative charge
carriers) (charge separation)
 • A photocurrent is generated when the holes and
electrons move to the corresponding electrodes by
following either donor or acceptor phase (charge
extraction).
• The primary advantage of OPV technology over inorganic
counterparts is its ability to be utilized in large areas and
Organic flexible solar modules, especially facilitating roll-to-roll
(R2R) production.
Solar Cells • Additionally, manufacturing costs can be reduced for
organic solar cells due to their lower price than silicon-
based materials and device manufacturing ease.
• However, to catch up with the performance of silicon-
based solar cells, both donor and acceptor materials in
an OPV need to have good extinction coefficients, high
stabilities, and suitable film morphologies
Organic PV Cell
 • A perovskite PV cell (PPC) includes a perovskite-
structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-
inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-
harvesting active layer.
• PPCs have emerged from solid-state DPVCs. However,
the efficiency of the DSSCs is very much restricted, and
perovskite solid state absorbers have the ability to
increase the efficiency by over 20%
Perovskite • The PPCs have gained efficiencies as high as 22.1%.

Solar Cells With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies

and meager production costs, perovskite solar cells have
become commercially attractive.
• Core problems and research subjects include their short-
and long-term stability. The PPCs can be fabricated using
low-cost solution-processed methods on glass and
flexible substrates
• Moreover, the global PPC market value is estimated to be
USD 214 million by the year 2025
Perovskite solar cell
 • Multijunction PV cells (MJPVCs) are composed of
multiple p–n junctions made of different
semiconductor materials.
• In response to varying wavelengths of light, each
material's p–n junction will produce an electrical
current
Multijunction • Many semiconducting materials allow for the
Solar Cells absorption of a wider range of wavelengths,
enhancing the cell’s absorption of sunlight to
convert to electrical energy.
• The most common form of multi-junction PV cell
consists of three layers called a triple-junction solar
cell. Each layer from top to bottom in these cells has
a smaller band gap than the previous one
 • The top layer has the most prominent band
gap so that only the most energetic photons
are absorbed in this layer.
• Less energetic photons must pass through
the top layer since they are not energetic
enough to generate electron-hole pairs in
Multijunction the material
Solar Cells • The elements from groups III-V of the
periodic table are used for manufacturing
MJPVCs which include gallium arsenide
(GaAs), aluminum indium phosphide
(AlInP), aluminum gallium indium phosphide
(AlGaInP), gallium indium phosphide
(GaInP), and indium phosphide (InP), etc
 • The MJPVCs with three junctions have
been reported to have theoretical
efficiencies exceeding 45%.
• The addition of more junctions could
potentially lead to even higher efficiencies
Multijunction • However, due to the increased production
cost and low availability of their
Solar Cells constituents, these solar cells are not
considered suitable for cost-effective
terrestrial applications.
• Hence, they have mainly been used for
space PV and high concentrating PV
(HCPV) applications
Multijunction solar cell Spectral Irradiance map
 • The fourth-generation (4G) solar cell technology
uses the combination of inorganic and organic
materials to boost the efficiency and cost-
effectiveness of solar cells.
• The 4G solar cells are characterized by the flexibility
Fourth of conducting polymer films (organic materials) and
stable nanostructures (inorganic materials)
Generation • In the 4G solar cells, the commonly used substrate
is transparent tin-doped indium oxide; however, new
Solar cells alternatives have used graphene, metal nanowires,
and metal grid structures
• The essence of the nanomaterials in these solar
cells enables the surrounding space of the
nanomaterial to be filled using a conductor, such as
a polymer
Increments in conversion efficiencies of solar cells
Equivalent Circuit of Solar Cell
 • The single diode equation assumes a constant
value for the ideality factor n. (The ideality factor
of a diode is a measure of how closely the
diode follows the ideal diode equation)
• In reality the ideality factor is a function of
voltage across the device.
Two-diode • At high voltage, when the recombination in the
Equivalent device is dominated by the surfaces and the
bulk regions the ideality factor is close to one.
Model • However, at lower voltages, recombination in
the junction dominates and the ideality factor
approaches two.
• The junction recombination is modeled by
adding a second diode in parallel with the first
and setting the ideality factor typically to two
 Diode 1 represents the recombination current in the quasi-
neutral regions, while diode 2 represents recombination in the
depletion region

Double diode model equivalent circuit

 • The generation of current in a solar cell, known
as the "light-generated current", involves two
key processes.
• The first process is the absorption of incident
Light photons to create electron-hole pairs.
• Electron-hole pairs will be generated in the
Generated solar cell provided that the incident photon has
an energy greater than that of the band gap.
Current • However, electrons (in the p-type material), and
holes (in the n-type material) are meta-stable
and will only exist, on average, for a length of
time equal to the minority carrier lifetime before
they recombine.
 • If the carrier recombines, then the light-
generated electron-hole pair is lost and no
current or power can be generated.
• A second process, the collection
(separation) of these carriers by the p-n
Light junction, prevents this recombination by
using a p-n junction to spatially separate the
Generated electron and the hole.
Current • The carriers are separated by the action of
the electric field existing at the p-n junction.
• If the light-generated minority carrier
reaches the p-n junction, it is swept across
the junction by the electric field at the
junction, where it is now a majority carrier.
 • The performance of PV cells and modules are
described by their current versus voltage (I– V)
relationship
• The most used performance indictor is the
electrical conversion efficiency at Standard Test
Conditions, STC (temperature 25 °C, spectral
Performance irradiance AM1.5, total irradiance 1000 W/m2).
Parameters • The conversion efficiency is the measure of
quality of the PV cell and depends upon other
PV cell parameters such as short–circuit current
(ISC), open–circuit voltage (VOC), electric
maximum power output (PMPP), voltage and
current at the maximum power point (VMPP and
IMPP, respectively) and fill factor (FF)
I-V Curve of solar cell
 • The short-circuit current is the current
that flows through the junction under
given incident solar irradiance when the
connected load is at its minimum value.
Short-circuit • Theoretically, it is the sum of
Current contributions from each of the PV cell
regions, i.e., n-type, p-type, and
(Isc) depletion regions.
• The short circuit current usually depends
upon incident solar radiation and back
surface temperatures of PV cells.
 • Open–circuit voltage is the difference in
electrical potential between two terminals
of a PV cell when there is no external
load connected.
Open-circuit • It is the maximum possible voltage
across the cell when no current is
Voltage flowing.
(Voc) • Once the open–circuit voltage is
reached, the photocell voltage saturates,
and increasing the load impedance will
no longer result in an increase in the
photocell output voltage.
 • It is the maximum value of power delivered by
the PV module under given conditions
• To measure Pmax, a variable load connected
across the PV output terminals is varied from its
Maximum minimum to maximum position, and the
corresponding values of currents and voltages
Power are recorded under different solar irradiances
and back surface PV cell temperatures.
Output • Based on the analysis of recorded data, the
(Pmax) maximum power points are identified under
different conditions, and the corresponding
values of currents and voltages at maximum
power, i.e., IMPP and VMPP, are noted for further
analysis.
Fill-Factor
• The short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage are the maximum values of
current and voltage produced by a PV generator under given conditions.
• However, the value of power corresponding to both above-mentioned operating
points turns out to be zero.
• The Fill Factor is a measure of how closely the solar cell acts as an ideal power
source.
• It is usually defined as the ratio of maximum power obtainable by a solar cell to
the product of output current and voltage at short-circuit and open-circuit
conditions, respectively.
• The measured values of maximum power (Pmax), short-circuit current (ISC),
and open-circuit voltage (VOC) under different operating conditions were used to
calculate Fill Factor (FF) by applying
𝑃 the following equation:
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝐹 =
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶
 • The conversion efficiency is the most
widely used performance parameter of
PV generators.
Electrical • It is based on the power delivered by the
Conversion PV module and the incident solar power.
• The conversion efficiency (ηEL) under
Efficiency different operating conditions was
calculated using the following equation:
• η_EL=(FF*V_OC*I_SC)/(A_PV*G)
P-V Characteristics of Solar Cell
 • The cell output current is given by the
following equation
• I = IoCosθ where Io is the reference
current and θ is the angle of the sun
Effect of measured from the normal
Sun Angle • This cosine law holds well for sun angles
ranging from 0 to 50°.
• Beyond 50°, the electrical output
deviates significantly from the cosine law
• The cell generates no power beyond 85°
 • The magnitude of the photocurrent is
maximum under a full bright sun (1.0 sun).
• On a partially sunny day, the photocurrent
diminishes in direct proportion to the sun
Effect of intensity.
• At a lower sun intensity, the I-V
Sun characteristic shifts downward as shown in
Intensity Figure
• On a cloudy day, therefore, the short-circuit
current decreases significantly.
• The reduction in the open-circuit voltage,
however, is small.
Effect of solar intensity on I-V curves
I-V Characteristics at different Solar Irradiances
 • With increasing temperature, the short-circuit
current of the cell increases, whereas the open-
circuit voltage decreases
• The effect of temperature on PV power is
quantitatively evaluated by examining the
effects on the current and the voltage
separately.
Temperature • Suppose Io and Vo are the short-circuit current
Effects and the open-circuit voltage at the reference
temperature T, and α and β are their respective
temperature coefficients.
• If the operating temperature is increased by ΔΤ,
then the new current and voltage are given by
the following:
• Isc = Io(1 + α⋅ΔΤ) and Voc = Vo(1 – β⋅ΔΤ)
 • Because the operating current and the voltage
change approximately in the same proportion as the
short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage,
respectively, the new power is as follows:
• P = VI = Io(1 + α⋅ΔΤ)Vo(1 – β⋅ΔΤ)
• This can be simplified in the following expression by
Temperature ignoring a small term:
Effects • P = Po[1 + (α − β) ΔΤ]
• For a typical single-crystal silicon cell, α is about 20
μu/°C and β is about 5 mu/°C, where u stands for
unit. The power is, therefore, given by the following:
• P = Po[1 + (20×10−6 − 5×10−3) ΔΤ] or
• P = Po[1 − 0.005⋅ΔΤ]
 • This expression indicates that for every
degree centigrade rise in the operating
temperature above the reference
temperature, the silicon cell power output
decreases by about 0.5%.
• Because the increase in current is much
Temperature less than the decrease in voltage, the net
Effects effect is a decrease in power at a higher
operating temperature.
• The maximum power available at a lower
temperature is higher than that at a higher
temperature. Thus, a cold day is actually
better for the PV cell, as it generates more
power.
Effect of temperature on I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell
I-V Characteristics at different temperatures
Effect of temperature on P-V Characteristics of Solar Cell
 • On a partly cloudy day, the PV module can
produce up to 80% of its full sun power
• It can produce about 30% power even with
heavy clouds on an extremely overcast day
• Snow does not usually collect on the
Effects of module, because it is angled to catch the
Climate sun. If snow does collect, it quickly melts.
• Mechanically, the module is designed to
withstand golf-ball-size hail
• The air flowing across the PV module has a
positive impact on its output power by
lowering the operating temperature
 • The array may consist of many parallel
strings of series-connected cells. Two such
strings are shown in Figure.
• A large array may get partially shadowed
due to a structure interfering with the sun
Effect of line.
• If a cell in a long series string gets
Shadowing completely shadowed, it loses the
photovoltage but still must carry the string
current by virtue of its being in series with all
other cells operating in full sunlight.
• Without internally generated voltage, the
shadowed cell cannot produce power.
Effect of shadowing
 • Instead, it acts as a load, producing local I2R loss and
heat.
• The remaining cells in the string must work at higher
voltage to make up the loss of the shadowed cell voltage.
• A higher voltage in healthy cells means a lower string
current as per the I-V characteristic of the string.

Effect of • The current loss is not proportional to the shadowed area

and may go unnoticed for a mild shadow on a small area.

Shadowing • However, if more cells are shadowed beyond the critical

limit, the I-V curve goes below the operating voltage of
the string, making the string current fall to zero, losing all
the power of the string.
• This causes loss of one whole string from the array.
• The commonly used method to eliminate loss of string
power due to a possible shadow is to subdivide the circuit
length in several segments with bypass diodes
Effect of Shadowing