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EngiTech
Renewable Energy Technology Learn
Course Lecture Series Plex

Module 2.4
Introduction of Solar Photovoltaic Systems &
Applications
Prepared by
Engr. Dr. Muhammad Farhan

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Photovoltaic Systems
• The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by directly converting it
into DC electricity by means of solar photo-voltaic cells.
• Photovoltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and volt, a
measurement of electricity.
• Photovoltaic cells are also called PV cells or solar cells for short.
• The first practical PV cell was developed by Bell Telephone researchers.
• At first, PV cells were used primarily in space to power U.S. space satellites.
Now PV cells are common in many different applications.
• Solar-powered toys, calculators, and many lighted roadside signs all use solar
cells to convert sunlight into electricity.
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Photovoltaic Cell Construction

• Solar cells are made of a thin wafer of silicon, one of the elements found in sand and the
second most common element on Earth.
• The top of the wafer has a very small amount of phosphorous added to it. This gives the
top of the wafer an extra amount of free, negatively charged electrons.
• This is called n-type silicon because it has a habit of giving up its electrons, a negative
character.
• The bottom of the wafer has a small amount of boron added to it, which has a tendency to
attract electrons. It is called p-type silicon because of its positive character.

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Photovoltaic Cell Construction

• When both of these chemicals have been added to the silicon wafer, some of the free
electrons from the n-type silicon flow to the p-type silicon and an electric field forms
between the layers at the p-n junction.
• The p-type now has a negative charge because it gained electrons. The n-type has become
positive because it lost electrons.
• When the PV cell is placed in the sun, the radiant energy excites the free electrons. If a
circuit is made by connecting the wafer’s sides, electrons transfer their energy from atom to
atom from the n-type through the wire to the p-type. The PV cell is producing
electricity—the transfer of energy due to moving electrons.

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Photovoltaic Cell

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Solar Cells
• Solar cells can be manufactured from different semiconductor materials and their
combinations.
• The voltage generated by a solar cell depends on the intensity of solar radiation
and the cell surface area receiving the radiations.
• The main types of solar cells are monocrystalline silicon cells, poly crystalline
silicon cells, amorphous silicon cells, gallium arsenide (GaAs), and Copper
indium diselenide (CID) cells
• At present, silicon solar cells occupy 60% of the world market.
• Basic types of silicon solar cells are: (i) Mono crystalline silicon solar cells, (ii)
poly crystalline silicon solar cells, and (iii) thin film or Amorphous silicon solar
cells
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Mono Crystalline Silicon Cells

• Monocrystalline silicon solar cells are the most popular and oldest technology made from
pure silicon on thin wafers of silicon
• A monocrystalline solar panel is a solar panel comprising monocrystalline solar cells.
These cells are made from a cylindrical silicon ingot grown from a single crystal of silicon
of high purity in the same way as a semiconductor.
• The cylindrical ingot is sliced into wafers forming cells. To maximize the utility of the
cells, the circular wafers are wire cut to an octagonal shaped wafer.

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Mono Crystalline Silicon Cells

• Monocrystalline solar panels usually have the highest
efficiency and power capacity out of all types of solar
panels. Monocrystalline panel efficiencies can range
from 17% to 22%.
• Usually, a monocrystalline panel will contain either 60
or 72 solar cells, depending on the size of the panel.
Most residential installations use 60-cell
monocrystalline silicon panels.
• These panels have longevity up to 30 years.
• These panels exhibit greater heat resistance.
• More expensive than other solar plates
• Plate size 400 plus watt.
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Poly Crystalline Silicon Cells

• Polycrystalline solar panels generally have lower efficiencies than
monocrystalline, but their advantage is a lower price point.
• In addition, polycrystalline solar panels tend to have a blue hue instead of the
black hue of monocrystalline panels.
• Polycrystalline solar panels are also made from silicon.
• However, instead of using a single crystal of silicon, manufacturers melt many
fragments of silicon together to form the wafers for the panel.
• Polycrystalline solar panels are also referred to as “multi-crystalline,” or many-
crystal silicon. Because there are many crystals in each cell, there is less
freedom for the electrons to move. As a result, polycrystalline solar panels have
lower efficiency ratings than monocrystalline panels.
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Poly Crystalline Silicon Cells

• Just like monocrystalline panels, polycrystalline
panels will contain either 60 or 72 cells.
• The multiple silicon crystals in each solar cell
makes it harder for electrons to flow. This
crystal structure makes the efficiency rate of
polycrystalline panels lower than
monocrystalline panels. Polycrystalline panel
efficiency ratings will typically range from 15%
to 17%.
• Quality improvements have also helped push
the standard 60-cell polycrystalline panels from
300 watts to over 400 watts.
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Thin-film solar cells

• Thin film solar panels are completely different from monocrystalline and
polycrystalline solar panels.
• They are solid black, lightweight and flexible, making them easy to install.
• Thin film solar cells are mostly used in large scale operations, such as utility or
industrial solar installations because of their lower efficiency ratings.
• Thin film solar panels are made by depositing a thin layer of a photovoltaic substance
onto a solid surface, like glass. Examples of these photovoltaic substances include:
• Amorphous silicon (a-Si), Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), Dye-sensitized
solar cells (DSC)
• Each of these materials creates a different ‘type’ of solar panel, however, they all fall
under the umbrella of being thin film solar cells.
• Because of the manufacturing process, the panels end up being lightweight and, in
some cases, flexible. However, it also makes them less efficient than crystalline solar
panels.
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Thin-film solar cells

• Thin film technology is the worst solar
panel technology because they have the
lowest efficiency.
• Thin film panels that are commercially
available generally have efficiency in the
10–13% range.
• Thin film panels also have shorter
lifespans than other types of solar
panels. Because they degrade quicker,
you might have to replace them more
often.
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Panel Efficiency
• Total Panel efficiency is measured under standard test conditions (STC), based on a cell
temperature of 25°C, solar irradiance of 1000W/m2 and Air Mass of 1.5. The efficiency
(%) of a panel is calculated by the maximum power rating (W) at STC, divided by the total
panel area in meters.

• Overall panel efficiency can be influenced by many factors including; temperature, irradiance
level, cell type, and interconnection of the cells. Surprisingly, even the color of the protective
back sheet can affect efficiency.
• A black back sheet might look more aesthetically pleasing, but it absorbs more heat resulting in
higher cell temperature which increases resistance, this in turn slightly reduces total conversion
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Panel
Efficiency

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Top 10 Most Efficient Solar Panels

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Why Efficiency Matters

• Faster Payback: Based on detailed lifecycle analysis, most silicon-based solar panels
already repay the embodied energy within 2 years. However, as panel efficiency has
increased beyond 20%, payback time has reduced to less than 1.5 years in many
locations.
• Increased efficiency also means a solar system will generate more electricity over the
average 20+ years meaning the return on investment (ROI) will be reduced even
further.
• Area Vs Efficiency: Efficiency does make a big difference in the amount of roof area
required.
• Higher efficiency panels generate more energy per square meter and thus require less
overall area.
• 12 x 270W panels at 16.5% efficiency = 3,200 W
• 12 x 360W panels at 21.2% efficiency = 4,300 W
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Real-World Efficiency
• In real-world use, solar panel operating efficiency is dependent on many external
factors. Depending on the local environmental conditions these various factors can
reduce panel efficiency and overall system performance. The main factors which affect
solar panel efficiency are listed below:
• Irradiance (W/m2)
• Shading
• Panel orientation
• Temperature
• Location (latitude)
• Time of year
• Dust and dirt
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How Solar Power Works

• All solar power systems work on the same basic principles.
• Solar panels first convert solar energy or sunlight into DC power using what is
known as the photovoltaic (PV) effect.
• The DC power can then be stored in a battery or converted by a solar inverter into
AC power which can be used to run home appliances.
• Depending on the type of system, excess solar energy can either be fed into the
electricity grid for credits, or stored in a variety of different battery storage
systems.
• The three main types of solar power systems
1. On-grid - also known as a grid-tie or grid-feed solar system
2. Off-grid - also known as a stand-alone power system (SAPS)
3. Hybrid - grid-connected solar system with battery storage
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On-Grid System
• On-grid generates power using a solar power system and is working in conjunction with the
national grid.
• For residential installation, the system could be placed on the roof that receives good sunlight.
• From this configuration, the actual customer receives electricity from two sources. On bright
sunny days, the solar system will feed power to the house and at night or during cloudy days, the
local utility company will supply electricity from the grid to the house.
• The free energy from the sun could help decrease energy bills. In the event more than enough
power is generated, the extra can be returned to the utility company and the customer could get
paid for that or could acquire some credits that could be used to offset electricity bills at later
stage. This is the principle used in net-metering.

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Off-Grid System
• Off grid power system does not have any connection with the grid. The utility company
providing power is completely independent from any national networks and is thus fully
responsible to service customers in the region. Any excess of electricity supplied is stored
in batteries and can be re-used at night.
• Off grid power is very helpful in rural areas that the grid may not be able to reach.

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Hybrid Solar Systems

• Hybrid solar systems combines the best from grid-tied and off-grid solar systems. These
systems can either be described as off-grid solar with utility backup power, or grid-tied
solar with extra battery storage.
• This means being able to store solar energy that is generated during the day and using it
at night. When the stored energy is depleted, the grid is there as a back up, allowing
consumers to have the best of both worlds.

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Solar Photovoltaic Applications

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Solar Water Pumping

• A solar water pump consists
of a calibrated matching
solar array of modules –
tuned with the equivalent
power of the pump for that
particular application.
• The solar water pumping
system is capable of running
all types of electrical water
pumps with applications
varying from irrigation to
household demands.
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Solar Water Pumping

• No fuel cost-uses abundantly available free sun light
• No conventional grid electricity required
• Long operating life
• Highly reliable and durable- free performance
• Easy to operate and maintain
• Eco-friendly
• Saving of conventional diesel fuel

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Solar Street Lights

• Solar street lights are raised light sources
which are powered by solar panels generally
mounted on the lighting structure or
integrated in the pole itself
• The solar panels charge a rechargeable
battery, which powers a fluorescent or LED
lamp during the night.
• The system is provided with battery storage
backup sufficient to operate the light for
10-11 hours daily.
• Solar street lights are designed for outdoor
application in un-electrified remote rural
areas
• This system is an ideal application for
campus and village street lighting.
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Solar Street Lights

• Solar street lights are independent of the utility grid. Hence, the operation
costs are minimized.
• Require much less maintenance compared to conventional street lights.
• External wires are eliminated, risk of accidents are minimized
• Initial investment is higher compared to conventional street lights.
• Snow or dust, combined with moisture can accumulate on horizontal PV-
panels and reduce or even stop energy production.
• Rechargeable batteries will need to be replaced several times over the lifetime
of the fixtures adding to the total lifetime cost of the light.

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Solar Fencing
• Security has become a crucial subject in today’s time and ensuring the safety
of one’s property, crops, colonies, factories, etc. has become everyone’s
primary concern.
• A solar fence works like an electric fence which delivers a brief yet fierce
shock when human beings or animals come in contact with the fence.
• Components of a solar fencing system are Battery, Charge control unit
(CCU), Energizer, Fence voltage alarm (FVAL) and Photovoltaic module
• Solar module generates direct current (DC) from sunlight which is used to
charge the system’s battery.
• The output of the charged battery reaches the controller or fencer or charger
or energizer.
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Solar Fencing
• When powered, the energizer produces a brief yet sharp voltage. The primary function of the
energizer is to produce pulses of nearly 8000 volts that are sharp and short-lived.
• These pulses are passed through the wires of the fencing system at a rate of around 1 pulse every
1-1.5 second with every pulse lasting for nearly 3 ms, thus ensuring that no physical harm is
caused to the intruder who attempts to come in contact with the solar fence.

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Solar Fencing
• Solar fencing has a wide scope of application and can be used at places like:
• Domestic applications such as at residential homes, Industrial applications
such as at factories, Agricultural applications such as in farms and forests
• Parks & Zoos, Military stations & police stations, Schools & hospitals
• Easy construction and maintenance, Low cost as independent of grid supply
• Does not cause fatal injuries
• Long-life due to the absence of any physical pressures causing wear and tear
• Capable of being shifted, extended, modified and re-erected from one place
to another without causing wastage of materials or labour

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