SH1727

Fundamentals of Electricity

I. The Philippine Electrical Code (RA7920)

a. Provision act for practice, licensure, and regulation of electrical engineers and
electricians
b. Used nationally as basis for electrical safety for people, buildings, and contents.
II. Electrical Safety Devices
a. Shuttered Sockets – sockets fitted with internal protective shutters, making it difficult
for children to poke things inside it
b. Fuse – protects the circuit from excessive current by melting if the current is high
enough, opening the circuit, and stopping the current flow
c. Circuit breaker – protects the circuit from current overload; functions similarly to
fuses, but does not get destroyed, making this a long-term safety device
d. Ground fault circuit interrupter – designed to detect a tiny mismatch in currents to
prevent electrocution; mandatory in bathrooms, kitchens, or anywhere else in the house
where water may come in contact with an electric circuit
e. Equipotential earth point/stud – device installed alongside to plug sockets to the
equipotential earthing system, which ensures all equipment is grounded at the same
low potential
f. Three-pronged plug – a plug with a round prong that serves as the ground outlet for the
device, which connects to the ground wire of the building
III. Electrical Safety Procedures
a. Check extension cord/wiring.
b. Inspect power tools.
c. Replace damaged insulated tools.
d. Don’t alter electrical plugs.
e. Keep extension cords inside.
f. Use outlet covers.
IV. Physiological Effects of Electric Shock
a. Electrolysis – polarized ions that causes ulceration on the affected area
b. Burns – low-to-high powered voltages that can cause minor to serious injuries
c. Muscle Cramps – uncontrollable muscular twitching due to electrical overstimulation
d. Ventricular Fibrillation – same as muscle cramps, but affects the heart
V. Definition of Terms
a. Electric Current - Amount of charge in conductor per unit time; unit is Ampere (A) =
1 𝐶/𝑠
Types:
i. Direct – current has both constant voltage and direction, primarily used in battery-
operated devices
ii. Alternating – current direction and magnitude changes in between two extreme
values, periodically reverses direction, and used in daily living

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Kinds:
i. Conventional – current flows from positive terminal of the source towards the
negative
ii. Electron – current flowing in opposite from the conventional, flowing from the
negative terminal of the source towards the positive
b. Current Density - Amount of current per unit of area; unit is 𝐴/𝑚2
c. Drift Velocity - Net motion of charged particles in groups; unit is 𝑚/𝑠
d. Resistance - Property of a material to resist current; unit is Ohm (Ω) = 1 𝑉/𝐴
i. Conductance – inverse of resistance, which is the property of the material to
conduct electric current; unit is siemens (𝑆) = 1/Ω
e. Resistivity - Measure of a material’s electrical resistance
Effect of Heat to Resistivity
A. Insulators have negative temperature coefficient, giving them higher
conductance as heat increases
B. Conductors have positive temperature coefficient, giving them higher
resistance as heat increases
Resistivity (𝝆) at 𝟐𝟑℃ Temperature Coefficient (𝛂)
Material
in Ohm – meter in per ℃
Silver (Ag) 1.59 × 10−8 0.0038
Copper [annealed*] (Cu) 1.72 × 10−8 0.00393
Copper (Cu) 1.68 × 10−8 0.00386
Gold (Au) 2.2 × 10−8 0.0034
Aluminum (Al) 2.65 × 10−8 0.00429
Tungsten (W) 5.6 × 10−8 0.0045
Iron (Fe) 9.71 × 10−8 0.00651
Mercury (Hg) 9.8 × 10−7 0.0009
Steel (Fe3 C) 7.2 × 10−7 0.003
Constantan (Cu55 Ni45 ) 4.9 × 10−7 0.0033
Manganin (Cu86 Mn12 Ni2 ) 4.82 × 10−7 2 × 10−5
Lead (Pb) 2.2 × 10−7 0.0039
Platinum (Pt) 1.1 × 10−7 0.003927
Nichrome (NiFeCr) 1.5 × 10−6 0.0004
Coal 3.5 × 10−5 …
Carbon [graphite] (C) 3 × 10−5 to 6 × 10−4 −5 × 10−4
Germanium (Ge) 1 × 10−3 to 4.6 × 10−1 - 0.05
Silicon (Si) 0.1 to 6.4 × 102 - 0.07
Human Skin 5 × 105 (approx.) …
Glass 1 × 109 to 1 × 1014 …
Rubber 1 × 1013 (approx.) …
Sulfur (S) 1 × 1015 …
Quartz 7.5 × 1017 …
* heat treating process in metallurgy that alters the physical (and to some extent, the chemical) properties of a material, increasing
its ductility (ability to be reformed into wire) while reducing hardness, making the material more workable

i. Conductivity – inverse of resistivity, which is the measure of a material’s

conductance

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f. Ohm’s Law – law developed by Georg Simon Ohm which states that current is
proportional to voltage, inversed with resistance
i. I-V Curve – a.k.a. the current-voltage characteristic curve, it is a graph that
shows the relationship between current and resistance, for determining the basic
parameters of a device in a circuit
1. Ohmic device – a device that demonstrates Ohm’s law, with constant
resistance
2. Non-Ohmic device – a device that does not show Ohm’s law, or an
Ohmic device with its maximum limit exceeded
g. Electrical Energy - converted 𝑈𝐸
h. Power - rate at which energy is transferred
i. Electromotive Force – work done by the voltage source to the circuit
- always constant; the “cause” of a voltage’s occurrence
j. Internal Resistance – resistance of a power source
k. Terminal Potential Difference - Output voltage of a source, when internal resistance is
considered
l. Electrical Hazard – condition concerning man and electrical equipment, which results
to injuries and/or death
m. Electric Shock - Physiological injury caused by passing electric current
i. Lichtenberg Figure – figure that shows a tree-like pattern
n. Electrocution – death due to electric shock
o. Kirchhoff’s Rules
i. Current Law - At any junction in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents
flowing into the junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing out
- all incoming currents must be equal upon leaving that junction
- Σ𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
ii. Voltage Law - The sum of voltages encountered in a complete traversal of any
loop of a circuit (or mesh) is zero
1. Resistance Rule
a. If traced loop follows current flow, then 𝑉 = −𝐼𝑅
b. If traced loop counters current flow, then 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
2. EMF Rule
a. If traced loop follows EMF flow, then ε = ε
b. If traced loop counters EMF flow, then ε = −ε
p. RC Circuit – a circuit with a resistor and a capacitor, which filters signals

VI. FORMULAE
Electric Current
𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡

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Where 𝑞 = charge
𝑡 = time
Current Density
𝐼
𝐽⃑ =
𝐴
Where 𝐼 = current
𝐴 = cross-section area of the conductor
Drift Velocity
𝐼
𝑢=
𝐴𝑛|𝑒 − |
Where 𝑛 = amount of charges present
|𝑒 − | = naturalized charge of an electron
In terms of Current Density, 𝐽⃑ = 𝑢𝑛𝑞

Resistance
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
Where 𝑙 = length
𝜌 = resistivity of the material
Conductance
1
G=
𝑅
Resistivity
𝐸
𝜌=
𝐽
Conductivity
1
𝜅=
𝜌

Effect of Heat on Resistance: 𝑅 = 𝑅0 [1 + α∆𝑇]

Effect of Heat in Resistivity: 𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + α∆𝑇]

Where α = temperature coefficient

∆𝑇 = changes in temperature

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Ohm’s Law, Power, Current, and Resistance formulas

Source: http://diyaudioprojects.com/Technical/Ohms-Law/

Electromotive Force
ε = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
= 𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑟
𝑊𝐸
=
𝑞
Where 𝑟 = internal resistance
𝑊𝐸 = electrical work

Terminal Potential Difference: 𝑉𝑇 = ε − 𝐼𝑟

Power in Electromotive Force

> Given 𝐼 = ε⁄𝑅 + 𝑟 ,
ε2
𝑃=
𝑅+𝑟
Power Dissipated as Heat
> Given 𝐼 = ε⁄𝑅 + 𝑟 ,
ε2 𝑟
𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑅 + 𝑟)2
Power Load Transfer
> Given 𝐼 = ε⁄𝑅 + 𝑟 ,
ε2 𝑅
𝑃𝑅 =
(𝑅 + 𝑟)2
Total Power Output: 𝑃ε = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑃𝑟

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Resistors in Circuits
Series
Resistance
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛
Current
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = ⋯ = 𝐼𝑛
Voltage
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
Parallel
Resistance
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
Current
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛
Voltage
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛

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