Assignment

9. Discuss the three main solar photovoltaic cell losses?

The word photovoltaic “consists of two words: photo, a Greek word for light, and voltaic, which
defines the measurement value by which the activity of the electric field is expressed, i.e. the
difference of potentials. Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity.
Converting solar energy into electricity in a photovoltaic installation is the most Known way of
using solar energy.
Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells, convert the energy of light into electrical energy using
the photovoltaic effect. Most of these are silicon cells, which have different conversion
effciencies and costs ranging from amorphous silicon cells (non-crystalline) to polycrystalline
and mono crystalline (single crystal) silicon types.
Since solar cells cannot produce power in darkness, they store some of the energy so it can be
used when light is not available. This can be by charging electrochemical storage batteries and is
similar to the process of photosynthesis in plants.
Solar cells can be divided into three broad types. Main types of PV cells that are
made of silicon are:
1. Mono-crystalline Silicon Cell

2. Ploy-crystalline Silicon Cell

3. Thin Film Silicon Cell

Crystalline Silicon Cells

Technology used for producing crystalline silicon is the most commonly used technology for
manufacturing the PV cells available in market today. The process involves melting and
crystallising of silicon into ingots of pure silicon. Out of these ingots, thin slices known as wafers
are cut either from a single crystal or from a block of crystals resulting in mono-crystalline and
poly-crystalline
Around 90% of solar cells are made from crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafers which are sliced from
large ingots grown in laboratories. These ingots take up to a month to grow and can take the
form of single or multiple crystals. Single crystals are used to create mono crystalline solar
panels and cells (mono-Si), while multiple crystals are used for polycrystalline panels and cells
(multi-Si or poly c-Si).
These solar cells use an n-type ingot, which are made by heating silicon chunks with small
amounts of phosphorus, antimony or arsenic as the dopant.
Mono crystalline cells have a distinctive appearance and are often coloured as well as tending to
have a cylindrical shape. These cells are cut into shape, which can be wasteful, but do provide

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the highest levels of efficiency. Polycrystalline cells do not need to be cut to shape as the silicon
is melted and poured into square moulds. Polycrystalline solar panels are seen as being a mid-
range option both in terms of price and efficincy.
1. Mono crystalline silicon
The most effective of the solar PV cells with 15% efficiency*, mono crystalline silicon is
therefore the more expensive option. They require less space than other cells simply because
they produce more energy and can yield up to four times more power than thin-film solar panels.
They also last longer than other and perform better at low light.
The main disadvantage is the cost which often means that it’s not the first choice for home
owners. It can also be effected by dirt or shade, which can break the circuit and the production
process is often seen as wasteful because the cells have to be cut into wafers.
2. Polycrystalline (or multi-crystalline)
With an efficiency of 13%, polycrystalline solar panels are often seen as a better economic
choice, particularly for home owners. They are made from a number of smaller silicon crystals
that are melted together and then recrystallized. The process to create them is simpler and less
wasteful than with mono crystalline panels. They do suffer more at high heats that can reduce
their lifespan but overall perform just as well as their more expensive counterpart. The main
disadvantage for polycrystalline solar panels is that you need more of them because of the lower
energy conversion efficiency.
3. Thin Film Solar Cells /Amorphous

Crystalline silicon cells are made from wafers that are just a fraction of a millimetre deep
(around 200 micrometers, 200μm), however thinlm solar cells, also called thin-lm photovoltaics
are around 100 times thinner. These thin lm solar panels and cells are made from amorphous
silicon (a-Si), in which the atoms are randomly arranged rather than in an ordered crystalline
structure. These lms can also be made from cadmium-telluride (Cd-Te), copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS) or organic PV materials.
These cells are produced by layering photovoltaics to create a module and are the cheapest
option for producing solar panels. The cells can be laminated onto windows, skylights, roong
tiles and other substrates, including glass, metals and polymers. However, despite this exibility,
they are not as ecient as regular crystalline silicon cells. Where crystalline silicon cells can
produce a 20% efficiency, these thin lm cells only reach around 7% eciency. Even the very best
CIGS cells barely reach 12% efficiceny.
Amorphous Silicon is used for making thin lm silicon PV cell. Silicon is deposited in a thin
homogenous layer onto surface like glass or rubber to make the amorphous silicon cells. Thin lm
cells are not very ecient, and the eciency vary around 6% on an average. Also, the power output
reduces very fast in the rst few months of use. However, amorphous silicon can be deposited on
a wide range of surfaces and makes it ideal for curved surfaces, as shown in gure and for
integrating directly on the roong materials.

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 comparison between the three crystalline silicon cells

Mono crystalline Polycrystalline Silicon Cell

Made using a single cylindrical crystal of Silicon made from the cells cut from a sillicon

Efficiency ranges from 14 to 20% efficiency ranges from 10 to 15%

Power per unit area is more Average life of cell power per unit area is less

More Expensive Less Expensive

Performs better in low light conditions Performance gets aected in low light
conditions

Average life of cell is more Average life of cell is less

Thin Film Silicon PV Cell

✓ Made from wafers that are just a fraction of a millimetre deep (around 200
micrometers, 200μm)
✓ Thin film cells only reach around 7% efficiency
✓ consequently the cheapest one
In general Solar cells are widely used as a renewable source of energy in scales ranging from the
smallest handheld devices right up to powering entire communities. As the move towards
achieving net zero carbon emissions continues, solar energy looks set to become part of an
overall renewable energy mix. With this will come investment and technological advances
alongside reduced costs for solar energy systems.
10. Discuss how electricity is generated using solar thermal power plant?
A Solar Thermal Electricity generating system also known as Solar Thermal Power plant is an
emerging renewable energy technology, where we generate the thermal energy by
concentrating and converting the direct solar radiation at medium/high temperature (300ºC –
800ºC). The resulting thermal energy is then used in a thermodynamic cycle to produce
electricity, by running a heat engine, which turns a generator to make electricity. Solar thermal
power is currently paving the way for the most cost-effective solar technology on a large scale
and is heading to establish a cleaner, pollution free and secured future. Photovoltaic (PV) and
solar thermal technologies are two main ways of generating energy from the sun, which is
considered the in exhaustible source of energy. PV converts sunlight directly into electricity
whereas in Solar thermal technology, heat from the sun's rays is concentrated to heat a fluid,
whose steam powers a generator that produces electricity. It is similar to the way fossil fuel-

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burning power plants work except that the steam is produced by the collected heat rather than
from the combustion of fossil fuels.
The ability to store energy as heat makes solar thermal electric power particularly valuable,
because energy can be stored when the sun is shining and released for electricity generation
when the power is needed most. Often peak electricity demand extends well into the evening on
hot summer days; solar thermal electric power is uniquely able to deliver zero-carbon electric
power to meet these demands. Solar plants can be built to be “dispatchable”, gathering energy
during daylight hours and releasing it during times of peak demand. Solar technologies have the
potential to be major contributors to the global energy supply. The ability to dispatch power
allows large-scale central solar technologies to provide 50% or more of the energy needs in
sunny regions around the world. Solar thermal power plant technology is particularly efficient at
high solar irradiation.

Five Major types of solar thermal power plants

A) Parabolic Trough Solar Electric Generating System (SEGS)

B) Central Receiver Power Plant

C) Solar Chimney Power Plant D)

Dish Sterling System

E) Solar Pond Power Plant

A) Parabolic Trough Solar Electric Generating System (SEGS)

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Although many solar technologies have been demonstrated, parabolic trough solar thermal
electric power plant technology proves to be one of the major renewable energy success stories
of the last two decades. Among all the solar energy systems, parabolic troughs are one of the
lowest cost solar electric power options available today and have significant potential for further
cost reduction.

B) Central Receiver Power Plant

It is also known as a power tower. It is a solar power facility that uses a field of two-axis
tracking mirrors known as heliostats(devices that track the movement of the sun). Each
heliostat is individually positioned by a computer control system to reflect the sun’s rays
to a tower mounted thermal receiver. The effect of many heliostats reflecting to a
common point creates the combined energy of many suns, which produces high
temperature thermal energy. In the receiver, molten nitrate salts absorb the heat energy.
The hot salt is then used to boil water to steam, which is sent to a conventional steam
turbine-generator to produce electricity.

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 C) Solar Chimney Power Plant

Basically solar chimney power plant is the combination of solar and wind energy, in
which solar energy is used to heat the air and making air less dense, moves up with
particular velocity and rotates the wind turbine. Ambient air is drawn into the glass
collector. This is warmed by solar energy and rises up the chimney. The current of rising
warm air drives a turbine and the turbine is set at the base of chimney and drives the
electrical generator. The Solar Chimney Power Plant (SCPP) is part of the solar thermal
group of indirect solar conversion technologies i.e. involving more than one
transformation to reach a usable form. More specifically, a natural phenomenon
concerning the utilization of the thermal solar energy involves the earth surface heating
and consequently the adjacent air heating by the sun light. This warm air expands causing
an upward buoyancy force promoting the flow of air that composes the earth atmosphere.
The amount of energy available due to the upward buoyancy force associated with the
planet revolution is so vast that can generate catastrophic tropical cyclones with
disastrous consequences. Thus, the SCPP is a device developed with the purpose to take
advantage of such buoyancy streams converting them into electricity. For that, a
greenhouse – the collector – is used to improve the air heating process, a tall tube – the
chimney – promotes the connection between the warm air nearby the surface and the
fresh air present in higher atmosphere layers and a system to convert the kinetic energy
into electricity.

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 D) Dish Sterling System

The dish or Stirling system generates power by using parabolically arranged mirrors to
reflect sunlight onto a small focal receiver, there by heating a gas chamber connected to a
piston and drive shaft. The drive shaft powers a generator which produces electricity to
be distributed to a grid. A dish/Stirling system includes two components; the solar dish,
which is simply a parabolic mirror or set of mirrors, and a Stirling engine, a closed-cycle
engine that operates silently using any heat source. Efficiency for the Stirling engine
approaches maximum theoretical efficiency for any engine, known technically as Carnot
cycle efficiency.

E) Solar Pond Power Plant

A solar pond is a pool of saltwater which acts as a large-scale solar thermal energy collector with
integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. A solar pond can be used for various
applications, such as process heating, desalination, refrigeration, drying and solar power
generation.

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 Advantages of thermal power plant

➢ The Fuel (coal ) is quite cheap.

➢ Less initial cost require as compared to other generating stations.

➢ A thermal power plant can be installed at any place where the existence of coal
and water.
➢ It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station.

➢ Power plant depends on coal, oil or natural gas, which are all steady in supply.

➢ In this power plant, the cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power
station.

➢ Thermal plants are able to respond to the load demand more effectively and
support the performance of the electrical grid
Disadvantages of thermal power plant

➢ Thermal power plant creates pollution due to large amount of smoke and fumes
because of coal combustion.
➢ A large amount of water source require for condensation of steam.
➢ Running cost high compared to hydro-power plant.
➢ coal is used as fuel which is the exhaustible source.
➢ Maintenance of steam power plant is complicated.
➢ Starting time is quite longer than other power plants.
➢ Efficiency is less around 30-35 %

13. write brief explanation about nuclear power?

Nuclear energy comes from splitting atoms in a reactor to heat water into steam,
turn a turbine and generate electricity. These plants are always on: well
operated to avoid interruptions and built to with stand extreme weather,
supporting
the grid Nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling water to make
steam, which turns turbines to produce electricity.
Nuclear power plants use low-enriched uranium fuel to produce electricity
through a process called fission—the splitting of uranium atoms in a nuclear
reactor. Uranium fuel consists of small, hard ceramic pellets that are packaged
into long, vertical tubes. Bundles of this fuel are inserted into the reactor.

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 Nuclear power offers many benefits for the environment as well. Power plants
don’t burn any materials so they produce no combustion by-products.
Additionally, because they don’t produce greenhouse gases, nuclear plants help
protect air quality and mitigate climate change.
When it comes to efficiency and reliability, no other electricity source can match
nuclear. Nuclear power plants can continuously generate large-scale, around-the-
clock electricity for many months at a time, without interruption.
A nuclear power plant is similar to a conventional thermal power plant: Each
type uses steam to drive a turbine generator that produces electricity. The heat
energy of the steam is converted to mechanical energy in the turbine, and the
generator then converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy, or
electricity. Although the turbine functions equally well no matter where the
steam comes from, the origin of steam is important to us, for it IS here that
nuclear and conventional plants differ.
How is steam produced ? Well, conventional plants burn coal, oil, or gas, and
heat from the combustion of these fossil fuels boils water to make steam. In
nuclear plants, on the other hand, no burning or combustion takes place. Nuclear
fission is used instead. The fission reaction generates heat, and this heat is
transferred, sometimes indirectly, to the water that produces the steam.
Consequently, it can be said that the fission reaction in a nuclear plant serves the
same purpose—the generation of heat — as the burning of a fossil fuel in a
conventional plant. We will take a look at nuclear reactor systems a little later,
but first we should review the fission reaction. The fission process requires a
particular kind of heavy element, such as uranium or plutonium, as a basic
material. Let us consider uranium. Natural uranium is a mixture of three isotopes,
atomic forms that are chemically alike but vary in mass. An atom of one of these
isotopes, uranium-235, can readily undergo fission when a free neutron (an
energetic subatomic particle) strikes its heavy central nucleus. The nucleus
breaks into two pieces that fly apart at high speed; in addition, two or three new
neutrons are released, as illustrated in Figure 1. The kinetic energy of the flying
fission fragments is converted to heat when they collide with surrounding atoms,
and the released neutrons cause a chain reaction by initiating new fissions in
other U atoms.

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the resultant heat.* The essential components of a reactor are: —the fuel, which fissions to
produce neutrons and to release energy; —the control elements, which are used to set the energy
release rate; and the cooling fluid, which removes the heat generated in the reactor.
In general Nucear power defined as

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