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Solar cell

For convection cells on the Sun's surface, see Solar granule.

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly
into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect.[1] It is a form of photoelectric cell, a device whose
electrical characteristics (such as current, voltage, or resistance) vary when it is exposed to light.
Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules, known
colloquially as "solar panels". The common single-junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum
open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.[2]

A conventional crystalline silicon solar cell (as of 2005). Electrical contacts made from busbars (the larger
silver-colored strips) and fingers (the smaller ones) are printed on the silicon wafer.

Symbol of a Photovoltaic cell.

Photovoltaic cells may operate under sunlight or artificial light. In addition to producing energy, they can
be used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic
radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
The operation of a PV cell requires three basic attributes:

The absorption of light, generating excitons (bound electron-hole pairs), unbound electron-hole pairs
(via excitons), or plasmons.

The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct
heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photoelectrolytic cell"
(photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that
developed by Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits water
directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.

Photovoltaic cells and solar collectors are the two means of producing solar power.

Applications

History

Declining costs and exponential growth

Theory

Efficiency

Materials

edit

Global photovoltaics market share by technology 1980-2021.[64]: 24, 25

Solar cells are typically named after the semiconducting material they are made of. These materials
must have certain characteristics in order to absorb sunlight. Some cells are designed to handle sunlight
that reaches the Earth's surface, while others are optimized for use in space. Solar cells can be made of a
single layer of light-absorbing material (single-junction) or use multiple physical configurations (multi-
junctions) to take advantage of various absorption and charge separation mechanisms.
Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third generation cells. The first generation cells—also
called conventional, traditional or wafer-based cells—are made of crystalline silicon, the commercially
predominant PV technology, that includes materials such as polysilicon and monocrystalline silicon.
Second generation cells are thin film solar cells, that include amorphous silicon, CdTe and CIGS cells and
are commercially significant in utility-scale photovoltaic power stations, building integrated
photovoltaics or in small stand-alone power system. The third generation of solar cells includes a
number of thin-film technologies often described as emerging photovoltaics—most of them have not
yet been commercially applied and are still in the research or development phase. Many use organic
materials, often organometallic compounds as well as inorganic substances. Despite the fact that their
efficiencies had been low and the stability of the absorber material was often too short for commercial
applications, there is research into these technologies as they promise to achieve the goal of producing
low-cost, high-efficiency solar cells.[65] As of 2016, the most popular and efficient solar cells were those
made from thin wafers of silicon which are also the oldest solar cell technology.[66]

Crystalline silicon

edit

Main article: Crystalline silicon

By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (c-Si), also known as "solar
grade silicon".[67] Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity and crystal
size in the resulting ingot, ribbon or wafer. These cells are entirely based around the concept of a p–n
junction. Solar cells made of c-Si are made from wafers between 160 and 240 micrometers thick.

Monocrystalline silicon

edit

Main article: Monocrystalline silicon

The roof, bonnet and large parts of the outer shell of the Sion are equipped with highly efficient
monocrystalline silicon cells

Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) solar cells feature a single-crystal composition that enables electrons
to move more freely than in a multi-crystal configuration. Consequently, monocrystalline solar panels
deliver a higher efficiency than their multicrystalline counterparts.[68] The corners of the cells look
clipped, like an octagon, because the wafer material is cut from cylindrical ingots, that are typically
grown by the Czochralski process. Solar panels using mono-Si cells display a distinctive pattern of small
white diamonds.

Epitaxial silicon development

edit

Epitaxial wafers of crystalline silicon can be grown on a monocrystalline silicon "seed" wafer by chemical
vapor deposition (CVD), and then detached as self-supporting wafers of some standard thickness (e.g.,
250 µm) that can be manipulated by hand, and directly substituted for wafer cells cut from
monocrystalline silicon ingots. Solar cells made with this "kerfless" technique can have efficiencies
approaching those of wafer-cut cells, but at appreciably lower cost if the CVD can be done at
atmospheric pressure in a high-throughput inline process.[59][60] The surface of epitaxial wafers may
be textured to enhance light absorption.[69][70]

In June 2015, it was reported that heterojunction solar cells grown epitaxially on n-type monocrystalline
silicon wafers had reached an efficiency of 22.5% over a total cell area of 243.4 cm

{\displaystyle ^{2}}.[71]

Polycrystalline silicon

edit

Main article: Polycrystalline silicon

Polycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline silicon (multi-Si) cells are made from cast square ingots—large
blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified. They consist of small crystals giving the material
its typical metal flake effect. Polysilicon cells are the most common type used in photovoltaics and are
less expensive, but also less efficient, than those made from monocrystalline silicon.

Ribbon silicon

edit

Ribbon silicon is a type of polycrystalline silicon—it is formed by drawing flat thin films from molten
silicon and results in a polycrystalline structure. These cells are cheaper to make than multi-Si, due to a
great reduction in silicon waste, as this approach does not require sawing from ingots.[72] However,
they are also less efficient.

Mono-like-multi silicon (MLM)

edit

This form was developed in the 2000s and introduced commercially around 2009. Also called cast-mono,
this design uses polycrystalline casting chambers with small "seeds" of mono material. The result is a
bulk mono-like material that is polycrystalline around the outsides. When sliced for processing, the inner
sections are high-efficiency mono-like cells (but square instead of "clipped"), while the outer edges are
sold as conventional poly. This production method results in mono-like cells at poly-like prices.[73]

Thin film

edit

Main article: Thin-film solar cell

Thin-film technologies reduce the amount of active material in a cell. Most designs sandwich active
material between two panes of glass. Since silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass, thin film
panels are approximately twice as heavy as crystalline silicon panels, although they have a smaller
ecological impact (determined from life cycle analysis).[74] [75]

Cadmium telluride

edit

Main article: Cadmium telluride photovoltaics

Cadmium telluride is the only thin film material so far to rival crystalline silicon in cost/watt. However
cadmium is highly toxic and tellurium (anion: "telluride") supplies are limited. The cadmium present in
the cells would be toxic if released. However, release is impossible during normal operation of the cells
and is unlikely during fires in residential roofs.[76] A square meter of CdTe contains approximately the
same amount of Cd as a single C cell nickel-cadmium battery, in a more stable and less soluble form.[76]

Copper indium gallium selenide

edit
Main article: Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a direct band gap material. It has the highest efficiency (~20%)
among all commercially significant thin film materials (see CIGS solar cell). Traditional methods of
fabrication involve vacuum processes including co-evaporation and sputtering. Recent developments at
IBM and Nanosolar attempt to lower the cost by using non-vacuum solution processes.[77]

Silicon thin film

edit

Silicon thin-film cells are mainly deposited by chemical vapor deposition (typically plasma-enhanced, PE-
CVD) from silane gas and hydrogen gas. Depending on the deposition parameters, this can yield
amorphous silicon (a-Si or a-Si:H), protocrystalline silicon or nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si or nc-Si:H), also
called microcrystalline silicon.[78]

Amorphous silicon is the most well-developed thin film technology to-date. An amorphous silicon (a-Si)
solar cell is made of non-crystalline or microcrystalline silicon. Amorphous silicon has a higher bandgap
(1.7 eV) than crystalline silicon (c-Si) (1.1 eV), which means it absorbs the visible part of the solar
spectrum more strongly than the higher power density infrared portion of the spectrum. The production
of a-Si thin film solar cells uses glass as a substrate and deposits a very thin layer of silicon by plasma-
enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).

Protocrystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of nanocrystalline silicon is optimal for high open-
circuit voltage.[79] Nc-Si has about the same bandgap as c-Si and nc-Si and a-Si can advantageously be
combined in thin layers, creating a layered cell called a tandem cell. The top cell in a-Si absorbs the
visible light and leaves the infrared part of the spectrum for the bottom cell in nc-Si.

Gallium arsenide thin film

edit

The semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also used for single-crystalline thin film solar
cells. Although GaAs cells are very expensive[citation needed], they hold the world's record in efficiency
for a single-junction solar cell at 28.8%.[80] Typically fabricated on crystalline silicon wafer[81] with a
41% fill factor, by moving to porous silicon fill factor can be increased to 56% with potentially reduced
cost. Using less active GaAs material by fabricating nanowires is another potential pathway to cost
reduction.[82] GaAs is more commonly used in multijunction photovoltaic cells for concentrated
photovoltaics (CPV, HCPV) and for solar panels on spacecraft, as the industry favours efficiency over cost
for space-based solar power. Based on the previous literature and some theoretical analysis, there are
several reasons why GaAs has such high power conversion efficiency. First, GaAs bandgap is 1.43ev
which is almost ideal for solar cells. Second, because Gallium is a by-product of the smelting of other
metals, GaAs cells are relatively insensitive to heat and it can keep high efficiency when temperature is
quite high. Third, GaAs has the wide range of design options. Using GaAs as active layer in solar cell,
engineers can have multiple choices of other layers which can better generate electrons and holes in
GaAs.

Multijunction cells

edit

Main article: Multi-junction solar cell

Dawn's 10 kW triple-junction gallium arsenide solar array at full extension

Multi-junction cells consist of multiple thin films, each essentially a solar cell grown on top of another,
typically using metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy. Each layer has a different band gap energy to allow it
to absorb electromagnetic radiation over a different portion of the spectrum. Multi-junction cells were
originally developed for special applications such as satellites and space exploration, but are now used
increasingly in terrestrial concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), an emerging technology that uses lenses and
curved mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto small, highly efficient multi-junction solar cells. By
concentrating sunlight up to a thousand times, High concentration photovoltaics (HCPV) has the
potential to outcompete conventional solar PV in the future.[83]: 21, 26

Tandem solar cells based on monolithic, series connected, gallium indium phosphide (GaInP), gallium
arsenide (GaAs), and germanium (Ge) p–n junctions, are increasing sales, despite cost pressures.[84]
Between December 2006 and December 2007, the cost of 4N gallium metal rose from about $350 per kg
to $680 per kg. Additionally, germanium metal prices have risen substantially to $1000–1200 per kg this
year. Those materials include gallium (4N, 6N and 7N Ga), arsenic (4N, 6N and 7N) and germanium,
pyrolitic boron nitride (pBN) crucibles for growing crystals, and boron oxide, these products are critical
to the entire substrate manufacturing industry.[citation needed]

A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors: GaAs, Ge, and GaInP

2.[85] Triple-junction GaAs solar cells were used as the power source of the Dutch four-time World Solar
Challenge winners Nuna in 2003, 2005 and 2007 and by the Dutch solar cars Solutra (2005), Twente One
(2007) and 21Revolution (2009).[citation needed] GaAs based multi-junction devices are the most
efficient solar cells to date. On 15 October 2012, triple junction metamorphic cells reached a record high
of 44%.[86]

GaInP/Si dual-junction solar cells

edit

In 2016, a new approach was described for producing hybrid photovoltaic wafers combining the high
efficiency of III-V multi-junction solar cells with the economies and wealth of experience associated with
silicon. The technical complications involved in growing the III-V material on silicon at the required high
temperatures, a subject of study for some 30 years, are avoided by epitaxial growth of silicon on GaAs at
low temperature by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).[87]

Si single-junction solar cells have been widely studied for decades and are reaching their practical
efficiency of ~26% under 1-sun conditions.[88] Increasing this efficiency may require adding more cells
with bandgap energy larger than 1.1 eV to the Si cell, allowing to convert short-wavelength photons for
generation of additional voltage. A dual-junction solar cell with a band gap of 1.6–1.8 eV as a top cell can
reduce thermalization loss, produce a high external radiative efficiency and achieve theoretical
efficiencies over 45%.[89] A tandem cell can be fabricated by growing the GaInP and Si cells. Growing
them separately can overcome the 4% lattice constant mismatch between Si and the most common III–V
layers that prevent direct integration into one cell. The two cells therefore are separated by a
transparent glass slide so the lattice mismatch does not cause strain to the system. This creates a cell
with four electrical contacts and two junctions that demonstrated an efficiency of 18.1%. With a fill
factor (FF) of 76.2%, the Si bottom cell reaches an efficiency of 11.7% (± 0.4) in the tandem device,
resulting in a cumulative tandem cell efficiency of 29.8%.[90] This efficiency exceeds the theoretical limit
of 29.4%[91] and the record experimental efficiency value of a Si 1-sun solar cell, and is also higher than
the record-efficiency 1-sun GaAs device. However, using a GaAs substrate is expensive and not practical.
Hence researchers try to make a cell with two electrical contact points and one junction, which does not
need a GaAs substrate. This means there will be direct integration of GaInP and Si.

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Factsheets

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Did You Know?

Light-duty vehicle fuel economy peaked at 22.0 miles per gallon (mpg) in 1987, declined until the early
2000s, then increased again surpassing 22.0 mpg in 2009.

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Figure1_MPG by Model Year, 1975-2021

READ MORE

VIEW ALL FACTSHEETS

Photovoltaic Energy Factsheet

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illustrated icon for photovoltaic energy factsheet

Click here to download a printable version

Solar energy can be harnessed in two basic ways. First, solar thermal technologies utilize sunlight to heat
water for domestic uses, warm building spaces, or heat fluids to drive electricity-generating turbines.
Second, photovoltaics (PVs) are semiconductors that generate electricity directly from sunlight. Solar
technologies generated 3.4% of U.S. electricity in 2022.1

Solar Resource and Potential

On average, 1.73 x 10⁵ terawatts (TW) of solar radiation continuously strike the Earth, while global
electricity demand averages 2.9 TW.3,4

Electricity demand varies throughout the day. Energy storage and demand forecasting will help to match
PV generation with demand.5

If co-located with demand, solar PV can be used to reduce stress on electricity distribution networks,
especially during demand peaks.6

PV conversion efficiency is the percentage of incident solar energy that is converted to electricity.7
Though most commercial panels have efficiencies from 17% to 20%, researchers have developed PV cells
with efficiencies approaching 50%.8,9

Assuming intermediate efficiency, PV covering 0.6% of U.S. land area would generate enough electricity
to meet national demand.10

In 2011, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced the SunShot Initiative. Its aim was to reduce
the cost of solar energy by 75%, making it cost competitive with other energy options. In 2017, DOE
announced that the 2020 goal of utility-scale solar for $0.06/kWh had been achieved three years early.
The 2030 goal includes reducing utility-scale solar energy to $0.03/kWh, cheaper than electricity from
fossil fuel energy resources.11

ANNUAL AVERAGE SOLAR RADIATION2

Image

Annual Average Solar Radiation

PV Technology and Impacts

PV Cells

PV cells are made from semiconductor materials that free electrons when light strikes the surface,
producing an electrical current.15

Most PV cells are small, rectangular, and produce a few watts of direct current (DC) electricity.16

PV cells also include electrical contacts that allow electrons to flow to the load and surface coatings that
reduce light reflection.15

A variety of semiconductor materials can be used for PVs, including silicon, copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), perovskites, and even some organic compounds (OPV).15
Although PV conversion efficiency is an important metric, cost efficiency— the cost per watt of power—
is more important for most applications.

PV TECHNOLOGY TYPES AND EFFICIENCIES9,12

Image

PV Technology Types and Efficiencies9,12

PV CELL DIAGRAM13

Image

PV Cell Diagram

PV Modules and Balance of System (BOS)

PV modules typically comprise a rectangular grid of 60 to 72 cells, laminated between a transparent

front surface and a structural back surface. They usually have metal frames and weigh 34 to 62
pounds.17

A PV array is a group of modules, connected electrically and fastened to a rigid structure.18

BOS components include any elements necessary in addition to the actual PV panels, such as wires that
connect modules, junction boxes to merge the circuits, mounting hardware, and power electronics that
manage the PV array’s output.18

An inverter is a power electronic device that converts electricity generated by PV systems from DC to
alternating current (AC).18

A charge controller is a power electronic device used to manage energy storage in batteries, which
themselves are BOS components.18

In contrast to a rack-mounted PV array, Building Integrated PV (BIPV) replaces building materials such as
shingles and improves PV aesthetics.19

Some ground-mount PV arrays employ a solar tracker. This technology can increase energy output by up
to 100%.20

RESIDENTIAL PV SYSTEM14

Image
Residential PV System

PV Installation, Manufacturing, and Cost

In 2022, global PV power capacity grew by 239 GW and reached almost 1,200 GW, or 1.2 Terawatt (TW).
Solar PV capacity has grown by nearly 750 times since 2000.23

Top installers in 2022 were China (94.7 GW), the U.S. (21.9 GW), and India (17.4 GW).23

New PV installations grew by 45% in 2022 and accounted for 66% of global renewable capacity
additions. Even with this significant growth, solar power only accounts for 4.5% of global power
generation.23

The cost of solar power has dropped over 80% since 2009. Various contracts have been signed around
the world with solar power prices as low as 1-2¢/kWh; this is much cheaper than conventional power
sources.24 In comparison, U.S. retail electricity averaged 12.49¢/kWh for all sectors and 15.12¢/kWh for
residential users in 2022.1

In 2023, global investment in solar power is estimated to be $380 billion. This accounts for 14% of the
total amount invested in energy worldwide.25

Including sectors such as manufacturing, sales, distribution, and installation, there are over 231,000 U.S.
solar jobs.18

WORLD CUMULATIVE INSTALLED PV CAPACITY21

Image

World Cumulative Installed PV Capacity21

MEDIAN INSTALLED PRICE, RESIDENTIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND UTILITY-SCALE PV SYSTEMS22

Image

Median Installed Price, Residential, Commercial, and Utility-Scale PV Systems22

Energy Performance and Environmental Impacts

Net energy ratio compares the life cycle energy output of a PV system to its life cycle primary energy
input. One study showed that amorphous silicon PVs generate 3 to 6 times more energy than are
required to produce them.26

Reusing multi-crystalline cells can reduce manufacturing energy by over 50%.27

Although pollutants and toxic substances are emitted during PV manufacturing, life cycle emissions are
low. For example, the life cycle emissions of thin-film CdTe are roughly 14 g CO₂e per kWh delivered, far
below electricity sources such as coal (1,001 g CO₂e/kWh).28,29

PVs on average consume less water to generate electricity (26 gallons per MWh), compared to
nonrenewable technologies such as coal (687 gallons per MWh).30

Solutions and Sustainable Actions

Policies Promoting Renewables

Consumers that do not have roof space for PV panels can join community solar programs, which are
local solar projects that community members can share and receive credit on their electricity bills.31
Property assessed clean energy (PACE) programs allow property owners to finance the upfront costs of a
solar installation through a voluntary assessment on annual property taxes.32 Green banks and other
lending institutions are being developed to specifically fund and support clean energy projects on local,
regional, and national scales.33

Carbon cap-and-trade policies would work in favor of PVs by increasing the cost of fossil fuel energy
generation.34

The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 expanded the federal Investment Tax Credit (ITC) to 30% until 2032
for the installation of a solar PV system, a savings of over $7,500 for an average system.35

PV policy incentives include renewable portfolio standards (RPS), feed-in tariffs (FIT), capacity rebates,
and net metering.

An RPS requires electricity providers to obtain a minimum fraction of energy from renewable
resources.36

A FIT sets a minimum per kWh price that retail electricity providers must pay renewable electricity
generators.37

Capacity rebates are one-time, up-front payments for building renewable energy projects, based on
installed capacity (in watts).37

With net metering, PV owners get credit from the utility (up to their annual energy use) for energy
returned to the grid.37

What You Can Do

“Green pricing” allows customers to pay a premium for electricity that supports investment in
renewable technologies. Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) can be purchased to “offset” commodity
electricity usage and help renewable energy become more competitive.38

Future Technology

Emerging PV technologies include perovskites, bifiacial PV modules, and concentrator PV (CPV)

technology. Perovskite solar cells have a high conversion efficiency (over 25%) and low production cost.
Bifacial modules are able to collect light on both sides of the PV cells. CPV utilizes low-cost optics to
concentrate light onto a small solar cell.39,40,41

Designing for end-of-life could improve the current 10% rate of PV module recycling.42

A watt is a unit of power, or a rate of energy flow. 1 TW = 1,000 GW = 1,000,000 MW = 1,000,000,000

kW.

A kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy. 1 kWh is the electricity energy required to light a 100 watt light bulb
for 10 hours.

Cite As

Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan. 2023. "Photovoltaic Energy Factsheet." Pub. No.
CSS07-08.

REFERENCES

Where to go from here

U.S. Renewable Energy Factsheet »

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illustrated icon for US renewable energy factsheet

U.S. Energy System Factsheet »

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illustrated icon for US energy system factsheet

U.S. Grid Energy Storage Factsheet »

Imageillustrated icon for US grid energy storage factsheet

Uses of solar cells

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Uses of Solar Cell

What are Solar cells?

The smallest unit of a solar power device is a solar cell. A solar panel is created by several solar cells. The
basic electricity generation unit of the solar photovoltaic system shapes solar cells. In fact, solar cells are
large-area semiconductor diodes. Because of the photovoltaic effect, light energy (photon energy) is
converted into electric current.

Solar cells are also called photovoltaic cells. They convert light energy into electricity.
Recommended Videos

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Uses of Solar Cell

Biogas Solar cells are portable, durable and the maintenance cost is low. It was discovered in the year
1950 and its first use was in communication satellite Let’s see some Solar cell applications for different
purposes:

Transportation

Solar cells in calculators

Solar cell panels

Solar cell advantages

1. Solar Cell for Transportation

Solar energy is used in cars. This solar power is created by photovoltaic cells. This electricity is
transferred to the storage battery or powers the motor. Ed Passerini was the first person to build a solar
car. The first powered car was created in the year 1977

2. Solar Cells in Calculators

Solar-powered calculators use photovoltaic cells. These calculators work with solar energy. The light
from sun gives power for the operation of calculators. Solar calculators work very well in outdoor light

3. Solar Cell Panels

On the rooftop, solar panels are kept. It is used as a solar heater which heats the water. This water can
be used for bathing. Also, another use it helps in generating power. People can store this energy in the
backup battery and can use during power cut issues. Or people can store this energy and use it to
generate electricity in their house and save money by reducing the electricity bill

4. Solar Cell Advantages

Solar energy is a renewable form of energy. Saves money as it reduces the electricity bill. Maintaining is
simple and affordable so the maintenance cost is also low. It is one of the best alternatives for non-
renewable energy.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1

What is solar cell and its uses?

Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells, directly transform energy into electricity from the sun.
Renewable energy is provided by solar cells, and they are durable, compact and low-maintenance. In
remote environments, solar cells often generate electricity, powering machines far from the closest
electrical outlet.

Q2

What is the principle of solar cell?

When light enters the p-n junction, via a very thin p-type film, light photons can quickly penetrate the
junction. Light energy, in the form of photons, provides the junction with ample energy to create a
sequence of electron-hole pairs.

Q3

Why solar is important?

The sun helps all life on earth. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used specifically for residential and
enterprise heating and lighting, for power generation, for hot water heating, for solar cooling, and for a
range of other commercial and industrial applications.

Q4

What is need of solar energy?

When you use solar panels to generate electricity, no greenhouse gas emissions are emitted into the
environment. And because the sun produces more energy than we will use, solar-powered electricity is
a very effective source of energy to shift into generating renewable energy.
Q5

How is solar energy beneficial to humans?

Clean, pure energy is derived from the sun from solar power systems. The installation of solar panels in
your home helps mitigate greenhouse gas pollution and reduces our mutual dependency on fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas are the basis of conventional energy. Public wellbeing is also
enhanced by clean energies.

This was a brief article on the uses of solar cells. To know more about the solar cell uses, download the
BYJU’S – the learning app.

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How Does Solar Work?

Solar Energy Technologies Office

Solar Energy Technologies Office How Does Solar Work?

The amount of sunlight that strikes the earth's surface in an hour and a half is enough to handle the
entire world's energy consumption for a full year. Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical
energy either through photovoltaic (PV) panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. This
energy can be used to generate electricity or be stored in batteries or thermal storage.

Below, you can find resources and information on the basics of solar radiation, photovoltaic and
concentrating solar-thermal power technologies, electrical grid systems integration, and the non-
hardware aspects (soft costs) of solar energy. You can also learn more about how to go solar and the
solar energy industry. In addition, you can dive deeper into solar energy and learn about how the U.S.
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office is driving innovative research and development
in these areas.

Solar Energy 101

Solar radiation is light – also known as electromagnetic radiation – that is emitted by the sun. While
every location on Earth receives some sunlight over a year, the amount of solar radiation that reaches
any one spot on the Earth’s surface varies. Solar technologies capture this radiation and turn it into
useful forms of energy.

There are two main types of solar energy technologies—photovoltaics (PV) and concentrating solar-
thermal power (CSP).

Photovoltaics Basics

You're likely most familiar with PV, which is utilized in solar panels. When the sun shines onto a solar
panel, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the PV cells in the panel. This energy creates electrical
charges that move in response to an internal electrical field in the cell, causing electricity to flow.

Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics

Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics

Learn more

Solar Photovoltaic System Design Basics

Solar Photovoltaic System Design Basics

Learn more

PV Cells 101: A Primer on the Solar Photovoltaic Cell

PV Cells 101: A Primer on the Solar Photovoltaic Cell

Learn more

Solar Performance and Efficiency

Solar Performance and Efficiency

Learn more

Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

Concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) systems use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto
receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat, which can then be used to produce electricity
or stored for later use. It is used primarily in very large power plants.
Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

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Thermal Storage System Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

Thermal Storage System Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

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Power Tower System Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

Power Tower System Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

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Linear Concentrator System Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

Linear Concentrator System Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

Learn more

Systems Integration Basics

Solar energy technology doesn’t end with electricity generation by PV or CSP systems. These solar
energy systems must be integrated into homes, businesses, and existing electrical grids with varying
mixtures of traditional and other renewable energy sources.

Solar Systems Integration Basics

Solar Systems Integration Basics

Learn more

Solar Integration: Distributed Energy Resources and Microgrids

Solar Integration: Distributed Energy Resources and Microgrids

Learn more

Solar Integration: Inverters and Grid Services Basics

Solar Integration: Inverters and Grid Services Basics

Learn more
Solar Integration: Solar Energy and Storage Basics

Solar Integration: Solar Energy and Storage Basics

Learn more

Soft Costs Basics

A number of non-hardware costs, known as soft costs, also impact the cost of solar energy. These costs
include permitting, financing, and installing solar, as well as the expenses solar companies incur to
acquire new customers, pay suppliers, and cover their bottom line. For rooftop solar energy systems,
soft costs represent the largest share of total costs.

Solar Soft Costs Basics

Solar Soft Costs Basics

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Community Solar Basics

Community Solar Basics

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Connect the Dots: Innovations in Residential Solar

Connect the Dots: Innovations in Residential Solar

Learn more

Solar Workforce Development

Solar Workforce Development

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Going Solar Basics

Solar energy can help to reduce the cost of electricity, contribute to a resilient electrical grid, create jobs
and spur economic growth, generate back-up power for nighttime and outages when paired with
storage, and operate at similar efficiency on both small and large scales.

Community Solar Basics

Community Solar Basics

Learn more

Farmer's Guide to Going Solar

Farmer's Guide to Going Solar

Learn more

Homeowner’s Guide to Going Solar

Homeowner’s Guide to Going Solar

Learn more

Solar Rooftop Potential

Solar Rooftop Potential

Learn more

Solar Industry Basics

Solar energy systems come in all shapes and sizes. Residential systems are found on rooftops across the
United States, and businesses are also opting to install solar panels. Utilities, too, are building large solar
power plants to provide energy to all customers connected to the grid.

Quarterly Solar Industry Update

Quarterly Solar Industry Update

Learn more

Solar Energy Resources for Job Seekers

Solar Energy Resources for Job Seekers

Learn more

Solar Technology Cost Analysis

Solar Technology Cost Analysis

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Success Stories
Success Stories

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Dive Deeper

Learn more about the innovative research the Solar Energy Technologies Office is doing in these areas.

Photovoltaics

Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power

Systems Integration

Soft Costs

Manufacturing and Competitiveness

Solar Energy Research Database

In addition to this basic information about solar energy, you can find more solar energy information
resources here.

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Photovoltaic panels vs. solar panels – differences

Even though photovoltaic systems and solar thermal collectors have been in widespread use in Poland
for quite some time, many prospective investors continue to confuse these two systems that are based
on different operating principles. For many people, the popular solar panels and photovoltaics are the
same thing – we will explain why this assumption is wrong.

Published: 24-01-2022

In this article, we will focus on the similarities and – above all – the differences between photovoltaic
technology and solar thermal collectors. Find out how the two systems work, learn the secrets of their
design and operation, and discover which system is better: solar panels or photovoltaics?

Photovoltaics and solar panels – differences and similarities

First, we will look at the similarities between photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors. Many
people confuse them because both solutions are installed on building roofs and at ground level, using
structures designed for this specific purpose. Another similarity between the two solutions is that they
use solar energy.

What is the difference between photovoltaics and solar panels?

This is, however, where the similarities end because solar thermal energy is absorbed by the two
systems for completely different purposes. Photovoltaic panels are installed for the conversion of
thermal energy into electricity, while solar panels convert solar radiation into heat. This is why these
solutions do not compete with each other. Instead, they may complement each other.

How do solar thermal collectors work?

You already know what the difference between photovoltaics and solar panels is. Now, it is time to look
at the design of the two systems. Solar thermal collectors absorb the solar radiation that reaches the
absorber, which transfers energy to the medium, usually a water and glycol solution. The medium
supplies the exchanger with heat in the form of hot water. Like photovoltaic systems, the popular solar
panels operate most efficiently when the system is directed to the south. However, unlike PV panels,
solar thermal collectors feature significant restrictions as they only operate when it is sunny, and this
leads to significant heat losses on cold and cloudy days.

Collector types

At present, there are two basic solar thermal collector types: flat and vacuum. Due to the climate
conditions in Poland, both types operate most efficiently from April to the end of October, when the
level of insolation is the most intensive.

Flat solar thermal collectors

Flat photovoltaic collectors are somewhat similar to PV panels from the outside because the solar
energy absorber is shaped like a flat metal plate. From the bottom, it is connected with a pipe system, in
which the medium that heats the hot water stored in the tank circulates. The foundation of efficient
operation of the entire system is adequate thermal insulation, made of mineral wool.

Vacuum solar thermal collectors

In turn, in vacuum collectors, the absorber is not an integrated whole, but it is divided into components
placed in separate vacuum pipes. Each pipe is connected to a bus, in which the heating medium
circulates that transfers the heat from the sun to the water stored in the exchanger.

What is stagnation in collectors?

When solar panels have not returned heat to water for a long time, intensive insolation may cause
stagnation or leakage. This type of defect does not occur in photovoltaic panels because these are
completely different systems.

Solar panels vs. photovoltaic panels: what is the operating principle of PV panels?

To understand the difference between solar panels and photovoltaics, it is also required to know the
operating principle of the PV system. Solar panels are made with silicon, absorb solar energy and
convert it into electricity. The energy obtained in this manner may be used to supply all types of
household, office, industrial or agricultural systems and equipment. As we can see, the application scope
of photovoltaics is much wider than that of solar thermal collectors, which are used primarily to produce
domestic hot water.

The parameters of the electricity generated by the panels are adjusted by the inverter, which is another
mandatory component of every system. The inverter converts direct current into alternating current,
that is the current in the outlets of household systems. What is very important, the photovoltaic system
operates not only on sunny days but throughout the year, also when the insolation is lower. The surplus
energy generated in the summer is transferred by the prosumer to the power company to “recover”
some of the stored reserves in the fall and winter months, when the photovoltaic system is less
productive. This significantly reduces electricity bills.

Types of photovoltaic panels

When asking the question: solar panels or photovoltaics, it is worth focusing — as in the case of solar
thermal collectors — on the PV module types available on the market. They are divided into
monocrystalline and polycrystalline.
Monocrystalline panels

As suggested by the name itself, they are made of monocrystalline silicon, and their color may vary from
dark blue to black. They are produced by cutting silicon crystals and feature characteristic beveled
corners. They are distinguished by good resistance to mechanical damage and extreme temperatures, in
addition to being highly efficient.

Polycrystalline PV panels

This type of panel is made of polycrystalline silicon produced from numerous mono-crystals. It is
characterized by a light blue color and distinctive crystal edges. The cells, however, are square-shaped.
Polycrystalline photovoltaic panels are considered less efficient and more vulnerable to high
temperatures. Nonetheless, they are popular due to being less expensive than monocrystalline modules.

Considering the structure of photovoltaic panels, it is worth noting the use of silicon. The precursor of
pure silicon synthesis is silicon tetrachloride, and for this reason, it is considered as used in the
photovoltaic industry. The product range of the PCC Group includes silicon tetrachloride and ultra-pure
silicon tetrachloride. Ultra-pure tetrachloride, in which the declared purity of the product is 99.9999%, is
particularly popular. The guaranteed purity allows an even higher quality of the silicon synthesized to be
obtained.

The operation of the photovoltaic system is complicated only in theory. The photovoltaic panel consists
of a photovoltaic cell, frame, special glass and film. So, the design of the photovoltaic panels is relatively
simple.

Photovoltaic panels vs solar thermal collectors – strengths and weaknesses

When comparing such technologies as solar panels and photovoltaics, it is worth considering the
strengths and weaknesses of both solutions. As you already know, solar thermal collectors are not as
versatile as photovoltaic systems, which are used not only to heat water but also to supply various
electrical equipment with free electricity from the Sun.
Strengths of photovoltaic systems:

operation throughout the year,

enabling energy independence,

no complicated maintenance is required,

eligible for subsidies,

eco-friendly, renewable energy source,

potential for reducing electricity bills.

Weak points of photovoltaics:

system performance depends on insolation,

high initial cost of investment,

electricity generation only by day,

necessity of designating a dedicated installation area,

profitability depends on legal regulations.

Strengths of solar thermal collectors:

possibility of producing hot water without starting the heating system,

support of the central heating system,

energy efficiency,

maintenance-free and comfortable operation.

Weak points of solar thermal collectors:

primarily suitable for heating domestic hot water,

heat generation on sunny days only,

high initial cost of investment,

risk of stagnation or leakage of solar panels in the event of inadequate heat use for the domestic hot
water.

Solar panels vs. photovoltaic panels – costs of purchase and operation

Another aspect of the photovoltaic panels vs. solar thermal collectors comparison is the question of the
operating costs of the two systems. The initial cost must be considered in both cases; however, solar
panels tend to involve lower costs than photovoltaics. The final cost of the investment depends on
several factors, including: the type and number of cells used, the total capacity of the photovoltaic
system, or the amount of heat to be supplied by the solar thermal collector. It is also worth
remembering that flat collectors are less expensive than vacuum collectors, and polycrystalline panels
are less expensive than monocrystalline cells.

Although both systems are practically maintenance-free, the operating costs must include the cost of
the annual inspection of the system, maintenance, and of the replacement of used cells or batteries.
From the economic perspective, the payback period is crucial. Depending on the type of the system and
whether the purchase was supported by an external subsidy, an investment in solar panels and
photovoltaics may pay back within several or dozen or so years.

Who should choose solar panels and who should choose photovoltaics?

You already know the difference between photovoltaics and solar panels and the strengths and
weaknesses of both solutions. Now is the time to consider when it is wise to choose solar thermal
collectors and when the photovoltaic system is better. If:

your priority is heating domestic hot water,

you want a solution to support the operation of the heating system,

you want to combine the solar system with a heat pump or condensation boiler,

the investment in photovoltaic collectors is a good idea. However, if your priority is to become
independent of the grid electricity supply, to lower electricity bills and to find an eco-friendly renewable
energy source, which could be used for different purposes, consider investing in a residential
photovoltaic system.
Conclusion: photovoltaic panels or solar panels?

As you can see, the answer to the question: which one is better – solar panels or photovoltaic panels,
depends to a large extent on the individual needs of each investor. A crucial aspect of the decision-
making process is the detailed specification of the usage of the solar system, as well as the cost-benefit
analysis. The installation of solar thermal collectors enables producing domestic hot water in the
summer without using heating equipment. In turn, a residential photovoltaic system enables using
electricity throughout the year and storing the surplus generated electricity in the grid. Regardless of
your final choice, it should be carefully thought through.

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Photovoltaics

Solar Energy Technologies Office

Solar Energy Technologies Office Solar Energy Research Areas Photovoltaics

Photovoltaic (PV) technologies – more commonly known as solar panels – generate power using devices
that absorb energy from sunlight and convert it into electrical energy through semiconducting materials.
These devices, known as solar cells, are then connected to form larger power-generating units known as
modules or panels. Learn more about how PV works.

The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) supports PV research and
development projects that drive down the costs of solar-generated electricity by improving efficiency
and reliability. PV research projects at SETO work to maintain U.S. leadership in the field, with a strong
record of impact over the past several decades. Approximately half the world’s solar cell efficiency
records, which are tracked by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, were supported by the DOE,
mostly by SETO PV research. SETO is working toward a levelized cost of $0.02 per kilowatt-hour (kWh)
for utility-scale solar photovoltaics, $0.04 per kWh for commercial PV systems, and $0.05 per kWh for
residential rooftop PV systems.

In September 2021, DOE released the Solar Futures Study, a report that explores the role of solar energy
in achieving these goals as part of a decarbonized U.S. electric grid. Learn more about SETO’s goals.
SETO LCOE 2030 PV Goals Chart

Within SETO’s PV research area, efforts are focused on several topics. Learn more about them below.

Research Topics

SETO funding for PV research is awarded for innovative concepts and experimental designs across a
range of technology approaches that show promise to achieve significant cost reductions and enable
faster wide-scale deployment. These projects focus on concepts that could achieve commercial success
in the short term or as long as 10-20 years. This creates an innovation ecosystem in the United States,
supporting the long-term growth of the solar industry.

Projects in this research area are managed by the photovoltaics team and the manufacturing and
competitiveness team. Learn more about SETO’s funding programs and current funding opportunities.
To see all PV projects funded by SETO, visit the Solar Energy Research Database. Reports resulting from
research projects can be found on the Office of Science and Technical Information (OSTI) website.

Photovoltaics Technologies

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Perovskites

Multijunction (III-V)

Organic

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Solar Photovoltaic System Design Basics

Solar Performance and Efficiency

PV Cells 101: A Primer on the Solar Photovoltaic Cell

Homeowner’s Guide to Going Solar

Photovoltaics Success Stories

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