Haramaya University

 
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
 
School of Rural Development and Agricultural
Innovation
 
Agricultural Extension (Mid-Career) Program 
Course: Extension Methods and Approaches

Credit hours: 4hrs/ 5ECTS

Course Code: AgEx1041

February 2022
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 Chapter One
The History, Development, and Future of
Agricultural Extension
The terminology of “EXTENSION”
The term ‘extension’ has its origin in the Latin word, tensio, meaning stretching, and ex,
and meaning out. The literal meaning of extension is stretching out. Extension basically
extends education; its purpose is to change the attitudes and practices of people with
whom the work is done.

 The meaning of the term ‘extension’ has evolved over time, and has different
connotations in different countries. For example:

• Dutch: Voorlichting (“lighting the path”)

• German: Beratung (“advisory work”)

• French: Vulgarisation (“simplification”)

2
• Spanish: Capacitacion (“improving skills”)
Despite the many varied ways agricultural extension is
defined there are certain elements that are common to
all the definitions. These are:

1. Extension is an intervention

2. Extension uses communication as its instrument to induce

change

3. Extension can be effective only through voluntary change

4. Extension focuses on target processes and outcomes.

5. Extension is deployed by an institution

How do you understand extension in your context
(career)? 3
• An extension is the act of expanding in scope; making more widely
available.

• It is the spreading of something (a belief or practice) into new

regions.
How different scholars define the term “Extension”

• Rolling: extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an

institution to induce voluntary behavioral change with presumed public or
collective utility.

• Adams (1985): Extension is the assistance to farmers to help them to identify

and analyze their production problems and to become aware of the opportunities
for improvement.
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 Agricultural Extension in Ethiopia
• Agriculture, had started in 1908 when the ‘Yersha Mesriabet’ was officially
established through a proclamation.
When the ministry was established, had the following objectives:
1. Advisory service and monitoring of both crop and livestock production
2. Animal health service
3. Forestry development and conservation
4. Collecting agricultural statistics
• These objectives were set with the consent that anyone violating the proclamation
would be punished while those who really stick to it would be rewarded.
• Before the establishment of this ministry through proclamation, however, there
were sort of ‘extension type’ activities going on in the country (1890-99) mainly
in the areas of:
• Eucalyptus development
• Irrigation
• Improved agricultural production practices

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 What is Agricultural Extension?

• Agricultural extension is central in formulating and disseminating

knowledge, and it plays an important role in most agricultural development
projects.

• Agricultural extension is the application of scientific research and new

knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education.

• It is the application/dissemination of scientific research and new knowledge

to agricultural practices and a way of influencing farmers’ decisions.

• Agricultural Extension is also regarded as “the body of knowledge which

accumulates experience and research findings with respect to extension and
borrows insights from other disciplines and field of endeavors which seems
pertinent to extension 6
 Brief History of Agricultural Extension
A. Evolution of Agricultural Extension
• Extension as a practice has a long history both ancient and modern.

• It can be argued that extension dates back to times when human civilization started
farming.

• There is archaeological evidence that indicate people sharing information on better

methods of agricultural practices during ancient Mesopotamian civilization.

• Extension practices have been mentioned as success story that led to the transformation of
agriculture and rural areas in many parts of the globe.

• Extension has evolved in different forms with different purposes over time.

• In the end it has evolved into a formalized public service that receives huge budget and
human resources and undertaken by governments with the objective of improving the
abilities of rural people to adopt technologies and new practices so as to adjust to
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changing conditions and societal needs.
 B. Modern agricultural extension

• The modern history was related to certain problems faced by farming community
which led to the birth of more or less organized form of extension.

• The birth of the modern extension service has been attributed to events that took
place in Ireland in the middle of the 19th century. Between 1845–51 the Irish
potato crop was destroyed by fungal diseases and a severe famine occurred.

• The British Government arranged for "practical instructors" to travel to rural areas and
teach small farmers how to cultivate alternative crops.

• This scheme attracted the attention of government officials in Germany, who

organized their own system of traveling instructors.

• By the end of the 19th century, the idea had spread to Denmark, Netherlands, Italy,
and France.

• Agricultural extension has now become recognized as an essential mechanism

for delivering information and advice as an "input" into modem farming 8
• In 1931 the “Yeirhsa Mesriabet” was restructured through a proclamation, and its
name changed to Ministry of Agriculture (MOA).

• During 1948, emphasis was given to animal health, as a result of which an agreement
was signed between FAO and the Ethiopian government to start vaccination program.

• Besides, for the first time in the history of Ethiopian agriculture, professionals were
sent abroad for training, particularly on animal health.

• Even if the efforts were there, there were many problems, which heavily constrained
the extension activities. These include;

 Extension service was not properly organized as a result of which its

objectives were not clearly defined, and

 it was not clear which farmers it is targeting,

 what extension method (s) was/were employed,

 how it was organized, and its contents were not properly defined.
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 Extension Approaches in Ethiopia (you can read from
hand out)
Philosophy and Principles of Extension
What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is a body of general principles or laws of a field of knowledge; it provides guidelines for
performing the activities in life in a particular way.

 The philosophy of extension is explained in the following statements:

1. Extension has a philosophy of culture
 It respects culture of people
 It brings about cultural change through cultural development.
2. Extension has philosophy of social progress
 Its works is based on needs and desires of the people
 It facilitates change and help people to adjust with them.
3. Extension has philosophy of education for all
 Disseminates useful knowledge to all people regardless of personal, social and economic characteristics.
4. Extension has philosophy concerning teaching
 It teaches by doing: i) Hearing – doubtful; ii) Seeing – possibly doubtful; iii) Do – believe
 It reaches people to practice themselves
 Teaching is inadequate till the knowledge is put into practice.
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5. Extension has philosophy of leadership
 Teaches, educates, and stimulates people through local leaders
 Utilizes assistance of voluntary leaders
 Locates, trains and uses functional leaders
 Extension trusts in what it can get others to do. 
6. Extension has philosophy of local responsibility
 Encourages people to contribute increasingly in their own affairs
 Prepares suitable leaders to determine programmes and plans
7. Extension has philosophy about truth
 Sells only proven facts
 Realize that going beyond truth will loose people’s faith in extension
 Continuously seeks new truth as today’s whole truth may be tomorrow’s partial truth.
8. Extension has philosophy of democracy
 Functions only with voluntary co-operation of the people
 Co-operation with the individuals, groups and institutions interested in common welfare
 Selects and solves the problems based on the felt needs through group action
 Democratic in organization.
9. Extension has philosophy of a dignity of individual and his profession
 Believes that each individual is endowed certain inalienable rights
 Dignifies the farm, home and family
 Holds that changed man is more important than the changed practice. 11
 Principles of Extension ( Reading Assignment)
Principles are general guidelines which form the basis for decision and action in a consistent way.

Guiding Principles of Extension

Extension works with people, not for them

• Extension works with rural people.

• Rural people can and do make wise decisions about their problems, extension agent does not try to
take these decisions for them.

• Extension helps people to solve problems and encourages farmers to make decisions.

Extension is accountable to its clients

• Extension services and agents have two sets of masters.

1. They are accountable to their senior officers and to the government departments that determine
rural development policies.

2. Extension is the servant of the rural people and it has the responsibility to fulfill the needs of
the people in its area. 12
Extension is a two-way link

• Extension is not a one-way process in which the extension agent transfers

knowledge and ideas to farmers and their families.

• Such advice, which is often based upon the findings of agricultural and other
research stations, is certainly important but the flow of information from
farmers to extension and research workers is equally important.

• Extension should be ready to receive farmers' ideas, suggestions or advice, as

well as to give them.

Extension works with different target groups

• Extension recognizes that not all farmers in any one area will have the same
problems.

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 • Extension cannot offer a single "package" of advice, suitable
to all farmers.

• Different groups need to be identified and the agent will

have to develop programmes appropriate to each group.

Extension cooperates with other rural development

organizations

• Within rural areas, extension services and agents should work

closely with the other organizations that provide essential
services to farmers and their families.
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 Communication processes within extension systems
Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, information, signals or
messages through appropriate media,:-

 To persuade individuals or groups, to seek information, to give information or to

express emotions.

Extension education is essentially a process of communication, thus communication of

ideas and skills between and among people.

Effective communication exists between two people when the receiver interprets the
sender’s messages in the same way the sender intended.

The process of communication is fundamental to extension, training and passing on

information.

The means of sending messages

The transmission of information

The verbal interchange of thoughts or idea 15

• In simple words we can say that ““just to convey the message”.
• If we go in more detail, “communication is the process of transmitting (A B) &
Receiving (B A)
Messages.

The Communication Process

 Laswell describe the Communication Process as: WHO? (a sender) SAYS WHAT? (a
message) IN WHICH CHANNEL? (a medium/ channel) TO WHOM? (a receiver)
WITH WHAT EFFECT? (Feedback).

 Communication process starts with a sender/source who has a message for a receiver.
The sender has the responsibility for the message.

 The sender's message travels to the receiver through one or more channels chosen by
the sender.

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 Elements of the Communication Process
These elements provide the building blocks from which all models of communication are
drawn
1.Source/sender
2. Message
3.Channel/medium
4. Receiver
5. Effect, and
6.Feedback 17
• The process of communication between two people includes seven basic elements:
I. The intentions, ideas, feelings of the sender and the way he/she decides to
behave, all of which lead to his/her sending a message that carries some
content.
II. The sender encoding his/her message by translating his/her ideas, feelings,
emotions, and intentions into a message appropriate for sending.
III. Sending the message to the receiver.
IV. The channel through which the message is translated.
V. The receiver decoding the message by taking it and interpreting its meaning.

His/her interpretation depends on how well the receiver understands the content of the
message and the intentions of the sender.

VI. The receiver responding internally to this interpretation of the message.

VII. The amount of noise that interferes with communication.
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• Messages in extension communication bear particular characteristics which may enhance or
hinder their acceptability by the target audience. These characteristics are:

1. Relative advantage- The degree to which an idea or technological innovation is perceived as

being better than the one it seeks to replace

2. Compatibility- The extent to which an idea or message is in line with or past sociocultural
values and beliefs.

3. Complexity-The degree to which an idea or message is perceived as relatively

difficult to use and understand.

4. Trial ability/ divisibility- The extent to which an innovation can be experimented

with on limited scale

5. Observability- The degree to which the results of an innovation or message content

are visible to others.

6. Risk level- The extent to which an idea or message is perceived to expose the
receiver to vulnerability due to failure. (assignment) 19
 Message

• If the audience is to make progress, the extension teacher somehow helps them to change
their knowledge, attitude or behaviour.

• If no change takes place there has been no communication – no progress. Good

extension teaching requires a thorough study of audience.

Message: Information/idea to be transmitted Should be clear.

• You should be clear in your mind what you want to communicate

• What do you think is the problem here!

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 Types & Levels of Communication
Level of Communication

• Level of communication take into consideration the number of persons involves in the

communication or interactive process.

• Level of communication could be:-
I. Intrapersonal
II. Interpersonal,
III. Small Group Communication
IV. public communication.

I. Intrapersonal Communication: is communication with one’s-self, and that may include

self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall and memory.

 It is self-talk communication

 it’s also thinking and analyzing something in ourselves.

 is ways of communication with ourselves.

 it is a kind of communication we use for plan, analysis, and to make decision for something.
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Through rehearse scenarios to find best solution to what to do or not to do
as well as,

 It helps to find and decide the right path through argument within mind.

• Some scholars, revealed intrapersonal communication is considered as

inner speech, self imagination, self talked.
Some Forms of Intrapersonal communication
1. Thinking Form
2. Vocal Form
3. Written Form
1. Thinking Form
• This include thinking as well as dreaming ( both daydream and night
dream).
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2. Vocal Form
• Is the way of performing intrapersonal communication through out loud eg. Music
exercise, language development, for stage preparation.

• It helps:

• To develop self-confidence and public speech

• To repeat or rehearse a message

• Letting your emotions be heard

• Giving yourself instructions etc.

3. Written Form:
This involves all written documents by yourself as intended to remind (remember).

This include: personal journal or diary, shopping list, reminders or notes, credit note etc.
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Advantages of Intrapersonal Communication

• Understanding yourself and your emotions

• Empathy and understanding others.

• Good analytical skills

• Improve decision-making skills

Unique features of Intrapersonal Communication

• Self-Concept: is how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique

characteristics One’s own self concept is at the center of intrapersonal communication.
•It include evaluation of owns belief, values and attitudes.
• Perception: is how people interpret what is going on around them.
• Expectation: is the prediction what will happen based on perception of what
has happened.
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1. How do you determine intrapersonal communication
either one- way, two-way or both attached reasons
with examples?

2. Does intrapersonal communication has sender and

receiver? Please explain

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 II. Interpersonal Communication
• It is the process of exchanging message between two people, to meet their needs.

• Interpersonal communication is the communication we have with other people.

• This form of communication takes place between two individuals.

• Both individuals have their own role to have common understanding and in order to

communicate in a clearer manner.

• The degree to which we communicate, or fail to communicate, with others influences

how our relationships with them.

• Human relationships and communication are interpersonal.

• It can be a two-way or one way Communication,

• It’s also the process of sending and receiving messages among two or more peoples.
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 Features of Interpersonal Communication

1. Inescapable: even we hold some thought inside us and do not let it out
verbally, it will take its form in other non verbal aspects, like mood, attitude or
body language.

2. Irreversible: once something is written or spoken or submitted, it cannot be

taken back.

3. Complex: there is a high chance of miscommunication between sender and

receiver, therefore interpersonal communication is complex.

4. Contextual: Context can be situational, environmental, relational, status…etc.

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 Difference between Intrapersonal and Interpersonal
Communication
Intrapersonal Skills Interpersonal Skills
Visualization Communication
Recognizing Negativity Conflict management
Compassion Empathy
Decision Making Leadership
Analytical Listening
Self-analytical Positive attitude
Team work
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 III. Small Group Communication

• Communication in small groups consists of three or more people who share

a common goal and communicate collectively to achieve it.

• The number of people will be small enough to allow each participant to

interact and converse with the rest.

• Meeting farm families,

• Focus group discussions with rural people,

•Meeting with local opinion leaders and

• Team meetings are examples of group communication.

• It is very effective in encouraging participatory extension delivery and an

effective tool for experiential and group learning.
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 IV. Public Communication
Public communication refers to public speeches that we deliver in front of audience.

• Public communication serves main purposes

• To entertain,

• To persuade and/or campaign

• To inform.

• For advocacy

• It is different from other forms of interaction in that it requires greater levels of

planning and preparation on the part of the speaker and involves less direct
interaction.

• Audience members still interact with the speaker via mostly nonverbal symbols,
but there is a lesser degree of give chance

• It is one way communication. 30

 Forms of Communication
Communication could be a verbal, non- verbal, written or
visuals depending on how the communication is packaged
or encoded.

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 I. Verbal Communication
• Verbal communication refers to the use of symbols in the form of spoken words

to transmit messages.

• Verbal communication is complicated by the fact that language is:

• Arbitrary: meaning that words change over time;

• Ambiguous: meaning that many words lack clear-cut meanings; and

• Abstract: meaning that words are not the phenomena to which they refer.

• Good verbal communication is an inseparable part of extension communication.

• In an agricultural extension delivery, extension agent come across people from

various ages, cultures and races.

• In extension communication, fluent communication and self-confidence plays a

vital role for achievement of extension objectives. 32

 II. Written Communication
• Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate.

• Good written communication is essential for extension communication among literate

farmers.

• Written communication is practiced in many different languages.

• Posters, flyers, leaflets, magazines, E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some of
the ways of using written communication in extension communication.

• The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is
communicated to the second party to whom the communication is intended.

• This is one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of
communication in extension activity.

• Mobile SMS is an example of informal written communication.

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 III. Visual communication

• The last type of communication is the visual communication. Visual

communication is visual display of information, like topography, photography,
signs, symbols and designs.
• Television and video clips are the electronic form of visual communication.

• Effective communication is essential for the success of any type of

information delivery. Informally too, nothing can be achieved without proper
communication.
• Therefore, developing communicative skills is a must. One must understand
that all the four types of communication are equally important and one must
develop communicative skills in all the mediums.
• In general, Self- development, interpersonal skills, mutual understanding,
mutual cooperation and trust, and good channel is an important things
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for effective communication.
 Types of communication skills
1. Expressive skills (Sending Effective Messages);- are required to convey
message to others through words, facial expressions and body language.
2. Listening skills (Effective listening): - are skills that are used to obtain
messages or information from others. These help to clearly understand what a
person feels and thinks about you or understand the other person closely.
3. Skills for managing the overall process of communication. Skills for
managing the overall process of communication help to recognize the required
information and develop a strong hold on the existing rules of communication
and interaction.

Barriers to Communication

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 Paradigms of agricultural extension

• Paradigm is “made up of the general theoretical assumptions and laws, and techniques for their
application that the members of a particular scientific community adopt”.

• Paradigm shift is a change in basic assumptions, or paradigm within the ruling theory of science.
Paradigm shifts: are a change from one way of thinking to another and a radical change in underlying
beliefs.

Types of paradigms
A. Technology transfer (persuasive + paternalistic): This paradigm was prevalent in colonial times and
reappeared in the 1970s and 1980s when the "Training and Visit" system was established across Asia.

• Technology transfer involves a top-down approach that delivers specific recommendations to farmers
about the practices they should adopt.

B. Advisory work (persuasive + participatory): This paradigm can be seen today where government
organizations respond to farmers' inquiries with technical prescriptions.

• It also takes the form of projects managed by donor agencies and NGOs that use participatory
approaches to promote predetermined packages of technology.
36
C. Human resource development (educational + paternalistic): This paradigm dominated
the earliest days of extension in Europe and North America, when universities gave training to
rural people who were too poor to attend full-time courses.

• It continues today in the outreach activities of colleges around the world.

• Top-down teaching methods are employed, but students are expected to make their own
decisions about how to use the knowledge they acquire.

D. Facilitation for empowerment (educational + participatory): This paradigm involves

methods such as experiential learning and farmer-to-farmer exchanges.

• Knowledge is gained through interactive processes and the participants are encouraged to
make their own decisions.

• The best-known examples in Asia are projects that use Farmer Field Schools (FFS) or
participatory technology development (PTD).
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 Chapter TWO
Extension Approaches and Models

 The goal of extension may vary within the overall system as well as between different extension
organization.

Mainly, the goal of extension work was designed based on the features of the system:

• Such as its organizational structure, and interest of the funding agency.

Now a day extension work expected to address two broad goals

1. technology transfer (a technical ) and

2. human resource development (socioeconomic view of development).

1. Technology Transfer

• Transfer of technology imply transfer of research findings, technology or practices from outside
(research institute, researcher or abroad).

It is a conventional way of transferring technology developed in research system.

 Research plays a crucial role in contributing to the development of new technology. 38

• Until the end of the eighteenth century, farming techniques developed

gradually and steadily over centuries with few qualitative leaps.

• Colonialism and magnificent expansion introduced innovations - the spread

of maize, tobacco, potatoes are striking examples - but experimentation and

dissemination of knowledge were basically at the local farm level.

• The rise of agricultural sciences has induced dramatic changes in this respect.

• Increasingly, new technology has been created outside the actual farming

sector by public sector research organizations.

• More recently, private firms in industrialized economies find agricultural

technology research and development a highly profitable business.

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• Farming systems research and the "rediscovery" of farmers'
knowledge (Chambers, Pacey, & Thrupp, 1989) have shown that
"improved technology is a package of inputs and practices that
usually comes from many sources" .

• The reexamination of the conventional view on agricultural

knowledge cannot, however, result in questioning the important role
of research as the source of new technology.

• What is called for is a setting of new priorities and the building of

knowledge systems based on problem solving rather than on
information transfer.
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 2. Human Resource Development

• The concept of human resource development is much broader than that for
technology transfer, through both are closely interrelated.

• Human Resource Development is a way helping employees in order to improve

or develop their personal and organizational skills, knowledge, and abilities.

• It can be informal as in employee coaching by manager.

• With the help of this skills, rural women and men ‘acquire a better insight into the
network of the problems and recognize the alternative solutions’

• Currently there is a view that human resource development is a genuine goal of

extension.

• The fact that Human resource development is an important and feasible in

extension system for empowerment of people.
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 Alternative ways of organizing extension
• The goals of extension may vary, as was shown, we can organize our extension
system based on the goals of organization/government.

The alternatives to organizing extension demand choices on various levels:

 Public versus private

 Government versus nongovernment

 Top-down (bureaucratic) versus bottom-up (participatory)

 Profit versus non-profit

 Free versus cost-recovery

 General versus sector

 Multipurpose versus single purpose.

 Technology driven versus need oriented

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 Alternative approaches to organizing extension

• It is assumed that different forms of organizing extension are neither

"good" nor "bad."

• Rather, extension services must be judged against their proper goals.

• The one universal yardstick, however, is their service function to the

rural communities.

• Extension which is not in touch with and does not significantly

contribute to improving the life situation of its clientele has lost its
trust.

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 A. General Clientele Approaches

I. Ministry-Based General Extension

 This approach entails all farmers (clients) should access and get assistance.

Clientele included in principle all persons engaged in agriculture.

This approach includes all aspects of small holder agriculture:-

 Plant production

 Animal husbandry

 Home economics

 Public interest was used to guide goal setting, programme formulation, and the
implementation of fieldwork.

 Even if the quantities of personnel (Extension staff) increased through time, more staff closer
to farmer, the ministry unable to reach the majority of the farmers.

Because of difficulty to manage clients-agent ratio as well as resources and financial problems.
44
• The original colonial model combined research and extension within the same

organization.

• All important aspects of small-holder agriculture - plant production, animal

husbandry, established respective sections

• The fact that the ministerial hierarchy followed the country's territorial

subdivision allowed the systematic expansion of the system "down" to the

village.
The contradictory nature of the goals.
• Public interest implies serving farmers and the urban population, securing
subsistence production and promoting cash crops for export,

• However, the priorities have given for pro urban in terms of price policy,

• Favoring innovative individuals within the modem sector, neglecting poorer 45

• Priority setting for research is rarely based on field evaluations because the
system does not foster critical upward communication.

• Non-educational /activities which are not related to the extension function

performed by the extension personnel .

• Ministry-based extension has been unable to satisfy majority of its potential

clientele for economic, socio-psychological, and technical reasons.

• Quantitative increases in personnel - have not produced manageable client-to-

agent ratios in remote places - Job satisfaction and motivation is low

• In recent years financial constraints have produced a strong pressure to reduce

staff, and the field level has been hit hardest.

46
• Adequate and location-specific answers to a farmer's problem are
often not available because it has not been a research concern.

• Decision making and management are highly centralized and

formalized and lack of organized feedback from clientele.

• However, Extension fieldwork, needs location-specific, flexible,

and often quick decisions and actions.

• Farmers may show their discontent by refusing to cooperate

with extension, but they have virtually no way of influencing
institutional reforms.

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 II. Training and Visit Extension (T&V).

• T&V is not a separate approach but one way to organize ministry-based extension.

• The controversial debate on the merits of T&V tends to doubtful the fact that it was
originally meant to solve some very specific problems of conventional extension
services.

• Benor and Harrison's original paper - one of the most influential extension publications
ever - critically evaluates the ministry-based extension system of the 1970s .

They found:

• An inadequate internal organizational structure

• Inefficiency of extension personnel

• Inappropriateness or irrelevance of extension content

• Dilution of extension impact

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• When first being introduced, T&V seemed to be strikingly original and promising because
it combined a set of rather convincing simple elements in a reasonable way.

• Rather than trying to reach all farmers directly and thus pre-programming constant failure,
the system concentrates on contact farmers expected to pass information on to fellow
farmers with similar problems.

• To ensure regular field contacts, facilitate supervision and communication, and set clear
and attainable objectives, fixed visits at regular intervals are prescribed.

• Similarly, regular sessions for extension workers to receive training and discuss

administrative matters are held.

• Agricultural research must not only be effective but also work in close collaboration with
extension.

• Both external and internal evaluations are to be used to constantly modify and adapt the
system to changing conditions.

• Simple as the prescriptions seemed, implementation proved to be difficult.

49
• In practice, T&V has been a top-down approach leaving little
possibility for participation and initiative, both for farmers and
village extension workers.
• Training sessions were held and visits made according to schedule,
leaving behind disinterested farmers and demotivated extension
workers.
• Apply less rigidly and combined with the tools of human resource
development as well as with the concept of participation are
important elements for reforming extension organizations, large or
small (Nagel et al., 1992).

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 III. The Integrated (Project) Approach

• Integrated approaches aim at influencing the entire rural development process.

• This approach concentrates efforts on a particular location, for a specific time

period, often with outside resources.

• Extension is only one though often crucial element in this strategy

• Integrated approaches are generally implemented in the form of large-scale and

foreign-funded projects

• Aiming at alleviating mass poverty in rural areas on the basis of "a simultaneous

improvement in the utilization of natural resources and of human potential"

• Measures to promote production are coupled with a strong emphasis on self-help.

The underlying concept is typically multi-sectoral. 51

 IV. University-Based Extension

• In most countries, the main contribution of educational institutions to extension

has been working on production of trained, qualified, dedicated, and responsible
personnel

• Our country Ethiopia, different universities including Haramaya university have

been working with local communities, in doing extension besides education and
research.

• Remarkable features are direct assessment of clients' needs, user-oriented

research, quality training for state personnel, and

• A strong linkage between academic education and field practice. Models

vary from state to state.

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 B. Extension to Selected Clientele

I. Commodity Based Extension

• Commodity-based extension is the predominant feature in many francophone countries of
Africa, but is also strong in other countries with commercial or export crops.

• The original rationale was the generation of revenue as well as the assured supply of tropical
products for the colonial powers.

• Today, goals are still clearly and intentionally production and profit oriented.

• The focus on only one or two crops facilitates training of extension workers who are
agents of the society or board concerned.

• Control of agents and farmers is easy, because they are judged in terms of defined targets.

• The rigidity of the system leaves little room for incorporating farmers' needs.

• It is useful in terms of technology transfer but leaves out important public interest issues
(such as environmental protection) 53
 II. Extension as a Commercial Service
• Commercial extension is a recent phenomenon and typical of either industrialized
forms of agriculture or the most modem sector of an otherwise traditional agriculture.

• It may be either part of the sales strategy of input supply firms or a specialized
consultancy service demanded by an agricultural producer.

• In both cases, the goal of the organization or the individual is profit earning, which in
turn is tied very closely to customer satisfaction.

• Large input supply firms or rural banks that use their own extension workers as sales
personnel must also have a long-term perspective with regard to the competitiveness
of their products and services.

• The clients of commercial extension will also be profit oriented. Their objective
is the optimal utilization of purchased inputs or contracted expertise.

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• The debate on who should bear the costs of extension.

• With escalating budget deficits, the idea of extension as a free public

service is no longer being generally accepted.

• It is argued that those who can afford it should actually pay for advisory
services.

• In the case of commercial input suppliers, the solution is very simple:

the costs of extension are included in the product price, as are the
costs for research or advertisement.

• Private consultancy, on the other hand, is costly and affordable only

to either large-scale or highly specialized producers.
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 III. Client-Based and Client-Controlled Extension
• One way of dealing with the shortcomings of large extension systems has been to
localize extension and utilize the self-help potential of rural groups.

• Often organized by outsiders, these decentralized approaches are in a better position to

serve the needs of specific target groups, notably those in disadvantaged positions.

• Close contact with their clients and intimate knowledge of their life situations are
essential for the planning of problem-oriented extension activities.

• Local personalities are identified who take over leader functions once the external
(nongovernmental) organization withdraws.

• The principles of these organizations (awareness, empowerment, participation, self-

help) are close to the philosophy of Animation Rural without the national dimension.

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 Chapter Four
Diffusion and adoption of Innovation
Innovation: is an idea, practice, methods or objects that is perceived as new by an individual
or other unit of adoption.

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