Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension Module

June, 2022
 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION PART
Chapter One
The Concept of Agricultural Extension

Chapter objectives: At the end of this unit students will be able to:

Explain the concept of extension

Explain the type of extension

Describe History of extension service in Ethiopia

 1.1. Concepts or Definition of Agricultural Extension

 Agricultural extension could be defined as voluntary out of school educational

programme for clientele.
 Some people consider it as a simple transfer of technology (TOT) while others
regard it as an instrument, geared towards achieving policy objectives.
As a result, it has been defined in a great variety of ways by different scholars.
Adams (1985) defined it as an assistance to farmers to help them
 to identify and analyze their production problems and
 to become aware of the opportunities for improvement.
 Rolling (1988), on the other hand, defined agricultural extension as a
communication process geared towards bringing voluntary behavioral change.
 Concepts & Definition of Extension….

 From these it is not possible to have one and universally agreed definition of
agricultural extension that captures all the possible variations of the term.
 Therefore, there is no single definition of extension that captures all the
possible variations of the term.

 Common Elements in the Definition of Extension

Despite the many varied ways agricultural extension is defined, there are about
five elements that are common to all of the definitions of extension. These are:
 A) Extension is an intervention
 B) Extension uses communication as a leverage instrument to induce change
 Common Elements in the Definition of Extension….

 C) Extension can be effective only through voluntary change

 D) Extension focuses on a no. of d/t target processes and outcomes
 E) Extension is deployed by an institution
 Therefore, by considering these common element, it is defined as:
“A professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to
induce voluntary behaviour change with a presumed public or collective
utility.”
1.2. Types of Extension
Based on the purpose it tries to achieve, the concept of extension have
classified in to four types. These are:
 Types of Extension……..

A. Informative extension:

 instrument for helping people make well-considered choices among

alternatives.

 The emphasis is on supporting the individual to make optimal decisions with

respect to achieving his/her own goals.

B. Emancipatory extension:

 instrument of emancipation and upliftment of the poor, a "pedagogy of the

oppressed", and for achieving societal objectives for correcting structural
problems.
 Types of Extension……..

C: Human resource development or formative extension:

 Emphasis is on developing the human being, forming or enhancing his/her

capacities to make decisions,

 And to learn, to manage, to communicate with others, to analyse the environment,

to be a leader, to stand up to oppression, to organise

D. Persuasive extension:

 policy instrument for achieving societal objectives or collective utilities.

 Intended change is in the interest of society as a whole or future generations, but

not necessarily in the short-term of the individuals.
 1.4. History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia

 The term extension was first used in England in 1840 in connection with university
education to describe the method of spreading knowledge to the outside community.
Agricultural extension got going in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Canada

when it was getting underway in the USA.

 Agricultural extension on the other hand has a recent history in Africa, Latin

America and the Far East.

Though agriculture has a long history in Ethiopia, it attracted the recognition of the

country only in 1908 when the then yeirsha meseriabet was officially established

through a proclamation.
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

The ministry, when established, had the following objectives:

 Advisory service on monitoring of crop & livestock production

Animal health service

 Forestry development and conservation

Collecting agricultural statistics

 These objectives were set with the consent that anyone violating the proclamation

would be punished while those who really stick to it would be rewarded.

In 1931, “Yeirhsa Mesriabet” was restructured through a proclamation and its

name changed to MoA.

 The objectives set when this ministry was established were also improved.
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

 In 1943 however, a number of demonstration sites were established

throughout the country. Some of which include:
 Sholla Poultry Demonstration Center
 Andasa (Gojam) and Adami Tulu (Shewa) ranches
Intoto, Kundi, Kofele, Bale, Jijiga and Amed Guya sheep ranches for
mutton production
These sites were serving as improvement centers and demonstration centres
that aid farmers to get understanding of improved production practices.
In 1948, emphasis was given to animal health as a result of which an
agreement was signed b/n FAO and Ethiopian government.
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

 Besides, for the first time in the history of Ethiopian agriculture, professionals
were sent abroad for training particularly on animal health.
 Generally, before 1953: The agricultural extension service was not properly
organized as a result:
 Its objectives were not clearly defined,
 It was not clear:
which farmers’ it is targeting,
 What extension method was followed,
 How it was organized and
Its contents were not properly defined.
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

Agr.al Extension service since 1953:

There was about six type of agricultural extension service going on in the
country since1953. These are:
a. Agr.al ext. service under the ACA (1953- 1963)
b. The Conventional Agr.al Ext. Service (1963-67)
c. Agr.al Ext. Service under the CPPs (CADU; ARDU and WADU) (from late
1960s-1980s)
d. Agr.al ext. service under MPP-I and MPP-II (1971-1985)
e. Agr.al Ext. Service under PADEP (1985-1994)
f. The PADETES (1995 - to date).
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

a. Agr.al ext. service under the ACA (1953- 1963)

 Agricultural extension and research in a well established form have started
operation in Ethiopia in 1953 when the then Alemaya College of Agriculture
(now HU) was established through a technical support agreement signed
between
 the Ethiopian government and
 the US government.
 The college was established under the administrative control of Oklahoma State
University with triple mandates of
 Research, Extension and Training.
 It was therefore nationally mandated to administer the agricultural extension
service.
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

b. The Conventional Agricultural Extension Service (1963-67)

 The agricultural extension service was transferred to the MoA and the college retained

only on research and training programs in 1963.

The extension service rendered during that time is referred to as conventional.

c. Agr.al Ext. Service under the CPPs (CADU; ARDU and WADU) (from late

1960s-1980s)
The target of agricultural extension service under the CPPs was

 to cover 10% of the farming population in 15-20 years

with a philosophy of comprehensive multipurpose development concept

with an intention of extrapolating the same approach.

But, because of expensiveness of the method it was found impossible to continue with
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

In the late 1960s, The CPPs when launched in different parts of the country included
the following basic components:
 Agricultural extension service
Agricultural research
 Seed multiplication and distribution
 Marketing and credit services
 Improved farm implements production and distribution
 Rural infrastructure like rural road, water supply, health centers,
 Organizing multipurpose cooperatives

d. Agr.al ext. service under MPP-I and MPP-II (1971-1985)

 Because of expensiveness of the CPPs, it was impossible to continue with CPPs
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….
As a result of which, the approach was revisited and

 the first minimum package project (MPP-I) was established in 1971 target to 220 woredas

throughout the country and

 that of MPP-II established in 1980 after the land reform to cover 440 woredas throughout the

country.

e. Agr.al Ext. Service under PADEP (1985-1994)

 PADEP divided the country in to 8 different agro-ecological zones.

 The program was tentatively scheduled to take place around 1985 after the completion of MPP-II.

 This being the case some of the programs were undertaken while some did not at all in those agro-

ecological zones, where PADEP implemented the Training and Visit (T and V) extension system.
 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….
Although the different PADEP programs had different objectives, the program that became

operational has the following objectives:

 Peasant agriculture development particularly increasing food crop production and

improving livestock resource products.

 Soil conservation and irrigation works

Rehabilitation and development of farm lands

Integrated Rural development

f. The PADETES (1995 - to date)

It was borrowed from the experience of Sasakwa Global (SG-2000) in a number of

developing countries like Tanzania.

So, unlike previous extension systems PADETES gave much consideration to formulating

objectives from the stand point of farmers.

 History of Agricultural Extension Services in Ethiopia …….

The target groups of PADETES in general are all small and subsistent farmers.
Even though, the program is vary in different areas according to the farmers’
situations and agro ecological conditions, the contents of PADETES are:
 Mobilization development,
organizing farmers for their empowerment,
training and technical support.
 Chapter Two

Models of Research and Extension Linkage

 Linkage implies the communication and working relationship established

between two or more organizations pursuing commonly shared objectives in
order to have regular contact and improved productivity.

2.1. Importance of the Research-Extension Linkage

 Research institutions allocating their resources more efficiently

 Researchers may also have to interact with producers on a continuing basis

during the process of technology generation

 Continuous flow of information from research institutions on new and

improved practices
 2.2. Types of Research and Extension Linkage Models
 Four major types of linkages have been identified, based on ways of communication
and channels of communication.

'Formal' versus 'Informal' linkages:

 Formal linkages refer to linkages that are specified and agreed to by organizations.
Informal linkages are direct person-to-person contacts.

 Since informal linkage is an effective and low-cost method.

'Top-down' versus 'Bottom-up' linkages:

 In top-down linkage, information flows from scientists to extension and then to

producers. Bottom-up linkages refers to the flow of information from producers to
scientists.

 Information from farmers is based on their practical knowledge and helps improve
the effectiveness of research programs.
 2.2. Types of Research and Extension Linkage Models……..

'Internal' versus 'External' linkages:

 Internal linkages refer to linkages among scientists working in different disciplines

and on different commodities, whereas external linkages are linkages with major
clients, such as farmers, policy-makers, etc.

 External linkages help identify gaps in research priority and assess the utility of
research programs.

'Downstream' versus 'Upstream' linkages:

 Upstream linkages occur between research and policy making. The aim here is to
secure adequate funding and political support for research. Downstream linkages
occur between researchers and producers, to set research agendas and to establish
priorities.
 2.3. The factors affecting Research, Extension and Farmers Linkage

 organizational and institutional factors:  Financial factors:

 Top down extension and research management
 Lack of adequate budget
 Administration problems
for linkage activities
 Lack of incentives for linkage activities

 Turnover of employees  Low employees’ salary

 Personal and psychological factors:  Infrastructural factors

 Lack of adequate skills

 Lack of motivation
 Chapter Three
Extension Methods

3.1. The concept of Extension method

 Extension method:-the method of communication which can be used in extension
for influencing the target groups.
 An extension agents’ choice of any of the methods available will depend on:
 his specific goals and the circumstance in which he works.
3.2. Principles of Selecting Extension Method
There are four principles of selecting extension methods. These are:
1. No single extension (teaching) method is better than another: superior to another
2. Use a number of teaching methods
3. Methods will overlap
4. Use visual aids and written materials when possible
 3.3. Types of extension method

 There are three different types of extension methods. These are:

 1. Individual extension method;
 2. Group extension method, and
 3. Mass extension method
3.3.1 Individual extension method
 is a method in which an extension worker interacting on one-to-one basis with the
rural people.
Here the extension worker learns
 about the people of the area,
 how they think,
 what their needs are, and
 how they carry on their work.
 Individual extension method....
Some of the tools that are used under IEM are:
A) Farm & home visit C) Informal contacts
B) Office calls and inquires D) Model farmer
Advantages of IEM
 easy to make individual counselling of contact farmers.
 useful in contacting the stay-at-home type of peoples
 helpful to increase confidence of farmers in extension.
 very good way to solve a unique problem

Disadvantages of IEM
high costs in terms of time, money, staff and travel

Limited coverage of a target group.

incorrect information transmission may takes place.

seldom to provide a solution to problems related with collective interest. E.g. Discussions on

the use of grass land.

 Individual extension method.....

3.3.2. Group Extension Method

GEM is a type of extension method that makes a face-to-face contact or
interaction with the group of people (farmers.)
 These groups are usually formed around a common interest.
 It is a method that provides an opportunity for the exchange of ideas, for
discussions on problems and technical recommendation.
 Some of the tools that are used under GEM are:
a. Method demonstration: f. field trip
b. Result demonstration: g. Workshop:
c. Field day: h. informal and formal group discussion
d. Lecture and conference
 Group Extension Method……..
 Advantage of GEMs:

Large number of farmer can be reached at a time,

The extension worker can get more feedback from the audience.

Save time as compared with individual extension method.

Reduce extension costs per head of the target group.

Permit more participation by the target groups.

Brings farmers together with similar problems

Disadvantages of GEMs:

costly as compared to the mass extension method.

listeners might quickly forget the main points in talk and lecture.

If speaker is not well prepared and does not have enough knowledge, he may transfer faulty message.
 Arguments for focusing extension on groups

Efficiency: an extension worker can contact & influence, more clients than by contacting them individually.

• it achieves more with the same resources or the same with fewer resources.

Effectiveness for learning & action: group setting can speed up learning, attitude change and acceptance of
new ideas.

• interaction between individual members reinforces the direct influence of the extension worker

• problem identification diagnosis and screening of possible solution will benefit from exchange of several
points of view

Equity: encouraging the formation of homogeneous groups of different categories of clients extension
workers can serve a wider spectrum of clients more equitably

Demand-orientation: farmers groups can provide a structure for ensuring extension demand driven rather
than supply- driven

Empowerment: Giving power-economically, socially & politically

 3.3.3. Mass extension method

Is a method in which identical message is originated by an organization

and sent to a large no. of receivers through public channels.
Receivers are diversified.
 The use of MEMs in agricultural extension programme are:
1. To create awareness
2. To give timely information about outbreak of disease, pest weather report
3. To multiply the effect and impact of extension programme
4. To answer questions raised by farmers
5. To Reinforce information given by other extension methods
 Mass extension method….

 Some of the tools that are used under MEM are:

a. Radio f. Posters
b. Television. g. News paper
c. Video h. Magazines;
d. Leaflets i. Computer/Internet;
e. Slides
 In addition based on the way they deliver their message the above MEMs can be
categorized in to three. These are:
 A. Printed media: Eg. newspaper, magazine, posters, Leaflets, etc…
 B. Audio media: Eg. radio, cassette recorder.
 C. Audio visuals: Eg. TV, Video film, and Computer/Internet
 Mass extension method….

Advantage of MEMs:

Reinforce individual and group contact methods by complementing or

supplementing them.
It helps to reach a large and varied audience at once.
save time and expense in reaching large numbers.
The method itself may create interest in the listeners when the style is
changed in words and visuals.
 Mass extension method

Disadvantage MEMs……
 Less intensive and less effective than individual and group contact methods to bring
changes in practices.
 Lack the advantage of “social contacts” or “personal touch”
Evaluation of result is difficult.
There is less feedback and have less interaction since it is one way flow of
information
The audience’s misinterpretation may become very high.
Extension agents make most of the decision on the messages.
 Chapter Four
Community Participation
4.1. The concept of community participation
 Community Participation: is a process, by which a community:
 mobilizes its resources,
initiates and takes responsibility for its own development activities, and
share in decision making and implementation of all other development programmes
for the overall improvement of its production, health status, etc.
Community is a social entity made of people or families who have the following
characteristics:
 Live in the same geographical area
 Share common goals or problems
 The concept of community participation ………
Share similar development aspirations
 Have similar interests or social network or r/n ship at local level
 Have a common leadership and tradition
 Have common system of communication
 Share some resources-water, school, etc
 Are sociologically and psychologically linked.
4.2. participation and participatory methods
 Participation means taking part in an activity
 The first set of PMs is Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), which focused on how outsiders could quickly
learn from local people about their realities and challenges.
 Reflections on RRA led to the development of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), which had a
stronger focus on facilitation, empowerment, behaviour change, local knowledge and sustainable
action.
 4.3. Participatory development

What is participatory development?

• It is a process through which stakeholders can influence and share control over development
initiatives and over the decisions and resources that affect themselves (ABD, 1996).

• A process to engage local populations in development project

• PD uses local decision making and capacities to steer and define the an intervention.

• PD aims at achieving a localized capital accumulation process based on the skill

development and local resource generation.

• The essential features of PD is social mobilization.

• PD gives a new self confidence through which the community can engage a more ambitious
project involving collective action and involvement.
 4.4. Why Should Farmers Participate

There are several reasons why it is desirable for farmers to participate in decisions
regarding the extension program: Some of these are:
They have crucial information for planning a successful extension program,
They will be more motivated to cooperate in the extension program if they share
responsibility for it,
Target group participation is required for collective decisions ,
Participation makes possible to achieve more profound changes in the ways people think.
 4.5. Type of participation

• Based on the level of participation, there are about seven (7) typology of participation. These are:

a) Passive participation:
 Here the role of farmers is not significant;

 Programs are being implemented without consulting farmers,

 but being told what is going on.

b) Information giving:
Involve people to answer question for designers about their area,

but farmers have no any influence in decision

c) Consultation:
Involving people both in problem identification and solution, this implies that externals listen the views of the

farmers.
But they do not share in decision making;

still decision is in the hands of the intervening organization.

 Type of participation…………

d) Participation by material incentive:

Farmers will be participated by providing resources for the intended activities such as land, labour,

etc.
in these participation farmers will be incentivized.

) Functional participation:

involvement of people in group forming to implement the pre-determined objectives,

but, people are not involving in any decision making activities.

Relatively more advanced than the previous.

f) Interactive participation:

Here, people take over the local decisions and practices.

They involve in: joint problem identification, planning, action, evaluation etc.
 Type of participation…………

f) Interactive participation:…

Incorporating different views of the people is possible and people in turn have a power to decide.

Mutual learning is strong

g) Self mobilization –

the motivation comes from the people themselves which are independent from external

institutions.
They develop contacts to different organizations in order to get resources, advices, training etc.

Resource control is retained by the people.

The plan, action, evaluation, will be done by the people.

 4.6. Obstacles to Community Participation

a. Political or structure obstacles

 Political environment within a particular country can be supportive of this process;
 In countries where:
the prevailing ideology does not encourage openness or citizens’ comments but prefers to maintain the direction
and decision-making concerning state affairs in strictly controlled hands,
then the prevailing political environment will not be conducive to genuine participation.
b. Administrative obstacles
 Centralized governments encourage centralized administrative structures
 This structure by their very nature, are major obstacles to people’s participation.
c. Legislative obstacles.
 In various countries freedom of association either does not exist or only formally;
 in other ones where the right of association, including of small farmers, labourers, etc., is recognized in the laws,
the labour legislation is inadequate and/or scarcely applied in practice
 Obstacles to Community Participation…………
d. Social obstacles
•The most frequent and powerful social obstacle to the participation of rural people in development
projects is a mentality of dependence by local elite groups,
 In practice, it means that the rural poor have become accustomed to leave decisions and initiatives
to their “leaders”.
 The lack of leadership and organizational skills, and consequent inexperience in running projects,
leaves most rural people incapable of responding to the demands of participation.

e. Other impediments are

 the isolation and scattered habitat of the poor, their low levels of living and heavy workloads
especially of the women.

 Furthermore, their weak health conditions, low level of education and of exposure to non-local
information,
 4.7. The Arguments for Participation in Development
 On the one hand, Many planners would argue that there are potential risks and costs
implicit in greater people’s participation.
These could include:
 Project start-up delayed by negotiations with people;
Increases in no. staff required for supporting participation;
The possibility of opposing the project by the people when consulted;
Unpredictable participatory methodologies;
Over involvement of less experienced people.
 On the other hand, there are also a series of arguments which see participation as
extremely useful to the functioning of development projects:
 The Arguments for Participation in Development…

Interms of:
1. Efficiency 4. Coverage
2. Effectiveness 5. Sustainability
3. Self-reliance
 In order to assess the effectiveness of various forms of participation, it is necessary to have
acceptable indicators or measures of participation
 Some commonly used indicators include the following:
A. Timing of participation:
 Participation can take place at any stage of the project cycle, but the most useful participation
will occur at all stages.
 The Arguments for Participation in Development…

B. Who participates
 (Is it the local elite, the men only, the educated, those living closest to the village center?)
These questions raise an extremely important point about the equitability of participation.
C. Extent of participation (i.e., what activities do people participate in)
D. The degree to which the community/hh has control over decision making related to the
initiative.
 Quiz 1:

1. Write at least four characteristics of community participation?

2. ---------------------------- is a types of participation in which there is a strong

mutual learning as well as different views of the people is incorporated and people

in turn have a power to decide.

3. How does social issues to be obstacle for community participation?

4. List at list two a series of arguments which see participation as extremely useful

to the functioning of development projects?

 Chapter Five: Adult Learning and Communication

5.1. Meaning of Adult Learning

•Adult is somebody who has reached the age of legal majority, adults are critical thinkers and suffering
from narration sickness because they observe and reflect by evaluating situations and develop solutions.

•Learning is the process of acquiring and mastering knowledge and skills to contribute to solving societal
problems.
•Therefore, adult learning is simply a situation where adults are pursuing education or the practice of
educating adults to develop their knowledge or skills.
5.2. Characteristics of Adult Learners
Adult learning occurs best when it:
•Self-directed: adults can share responsibility for their own learning because they know their own needs.
•Fills an immediate need: motivation to learn is highest when it meets the immediate needs of the learner.
•Participatory: participation in the learning process is active, not passive
 Characteristics of Adult Learners………

•Experiential: the most effective learning is from a shared experience; learners learn from each other; the

teacher often learns from the learner.

•Reflective: maximum learning from a particular experience occurs when a person takes time to reflect

back upon it, draw conclusions and derive principles for application to similar experiences in the future.
•Provides feedback: effective learning requires feedback that is corrective but supportive

•Shows respect for the learner: mutual respect and trust between the teacher and learner help the

learning process.
•Provides a safe atmosphere: a cheerful, relaxed person learns more easily than the one who is fearful,

embarrassed or angry.
•Occurs in a comfortable environment: a person who is hungry, tired, cold, ill or otherwise physical

uncomfortable cannot learn with maximum effectiveness

 5.3. Ways of Motivating Learners

1. Encourage the efforts made by learners by word of praise.

2. Set and keep a routine and be regular in the way you conduct your dealing with learners.

3. Be punctual as this will make learners want to be in class early and feel that they are valued.

4. Give learners work that is challenging and yet which they can do successfully.

5. Use teaching methods that are interesting and stimulating.

6. Let the learners know the result of their work & guide what to do.

7. Let learners study or do what they can put into practice.

8. Take interest in learners as individuals. Listen to their problems and show them they are people
worthy of respect and consideration.

9. Revive and maintain interest by using different methods

 5.4. Concept, Meaning, Process and Factors Affecting Communication 

7.5.1. Introduction

• Communication is sharing information or providing entertainment by speaking, writing or

other methods.

• People communicate in many ways, including talking by moving their hands and even by
making faces.

• People also use telephone calls and letters for personal communication.

• Without communication parents would not know what their children need.

• Teachers could not help their students learn.

• Important ideas have no value if they are not communicated or disseminated.

 5.4.2. Concepts/definitions of communication

 Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or
impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning (Leagans, 1960).

 Communication is the process by which the message is transmitted from the source to the
receiver (Rogers, 1983).

 Communication is a mutual interchange of ideas by any effective means (Thayer 1968).

 Communication means the movement of knowledge to people in such ways that they act on that
knowledge to achieve some useful results (Winfield1967).

 Agricultural communication is defined as a planned transfer of farm technologies from the

research system to the farmers’ system through extension system and media and get feedback
from the clients.
 5.4.3. Four basic elements are involved in every communication process:

I. The communication source – the person whose ideas or meanings are to be transferred to
another person.

II. The communication receiver – the person or persons to whom the ideas or meanings are to
be transferred .

III. There must be a message which can be transferred from the source to the receiver.

IV. The message has to travel through a channel or medium in order to successfully make the
passage from source to receiver.
 5.4.4. Process of Communication

• There are five-step process occurring between a sender and receiver when they
communicate :

1. The sender generates an idea in the mind.

2. The idea is then converted into words, pictures, sounds, symbols, actions. This is called
‘encoding the idea’.

3. The encoded idea is transmitted to the receiver.

4. The receiver receives the encoded message through the senses and perceives it in the mind.

5. The receiver then decodes or converts the messages back into meaningful ideas in his / her
own mind.
 Process of Communication……….

• The entire process of communication requires at least the six steps, i.e., Ideation, Encoding,
Transmission, Receiving, Decoding and Action.

• These steps are discussed briefly:

Ideation:

• The first step in communication is ideation.

• Here the sender thinks of an idea which he wants to communicate to the other party.

• This is the content and the basis of the message. He must have something to say before he
really says it.

• The sender must also keep in mind the party to whom the message is intended to be
conveyed, and also the channel to be used.
 Encoding:
•Under this step, messages are composed of symbols having a certain meaning for the sender and the
receiver.
 Encoding is, thus, translation of an already conceived idea by the sender into a message
appropriate for transmission.
 Encoding includes selection of the mode of communication.
 The wording of the message may be different for different methods of communication to be used.
 A telegram may be differently worded from a letter.
 A telephonic conversation may be different from a face to face conversation.
 A green signal and a whistle from the guard are sufficient signals to the train driver for starting
the train, such signals are not sufficient for an aero plane to take off.
 Process of Communication……….

Transmission:

• The third step is transmission or conveying the message as encoded by the sender.

• The channel may be mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, films etc., or

• inter-personal involving direct exchange between source and receiver such as telephone,
correspondence, or

• non-verbal symbols like hands or facial gesture, or other body movements.

Receiving the message:

 The next step is receiving the message by the receiver.

 Thus, the receiver should be a good listener in the case of an oral message;

 However, listening alone is not sufficient; he/she should also be willing to understand.
 Process of Communication……….

Decoding:

 It means translation of symbols etc., encoded by the sender into an idea for understanding.

 The receiver decodes the message by changing the symbols into a meaning.

Action:

 It is the response by the receiver of the communication.

 He may ignore the message completely, or may store it, or may act as directed by the sender.
 5.4.5. Factors Affecting Communication

1. Symbols or words that have different meanings

• Some words mean different things to people depending on background or culture.

• A large amount of terminology is used in the hospital and misunderstanding is often the cause of problems.

2. Different values within the group.

• Everyone has their own value system and many do not recognize the value of others.

• (Example: Supervisor may speak with staff about penalties for being late for work. Some students may not
value the need to be on time, and may not actively listen to what the supervisor is talking about.)

3. Different perceptions of the problem.

• Problems exist in all groups, organizations, and businesses. Problems differ depending on the individual’s
perception of the problem.
 Factors Affecting Communication
4. Emphasis on status.
• Students may hesitate to tell you problems or concerns if you overemphasize your superiority and
appear threatening.
5. Conflict of interest.
• People may be fearful of change or worried that the change will take away their advantage or
invade their territory.
• This fear may cause people to block communication.
6. Lack of acceptance of differences in points of view, feelings, values, or purposes.
• Accepting input from others promotes growth and cooperation.
7. Feelings of personal insecurity.
• Be aware that it is difficult for people to admit feelings of inadequacy.
• People will not offer information for fear that they may appear ignorant.
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 Chapter six: what is sociology?

6.1. Concept and definition of sociology

 Impossible to understand it and to solve its various problems without the study of sociology

because society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude of intricacies

 there is no entirely satisfactory definition of sociology due to the diversity of perspectives or

views of various scholars.

•However, Sociology is one of the disciplines of the social sciences.

• The term sociology was first invented by the French social philosopher August Comte

(1798-1857) in 1838 from

the Latin word socius, meaning society, association, togetherness or friend and

the Greek word logos meaning study or science.

 what is sociology?..............
 Therefore, Sociology is commonly defined as the scientific study of social relations, social

institutions and societies.

 Comte hoped to unify all the sciences under sociology; he believed sociology held the

potential to improve society and direct human activity, including the other sciences.

• He also argued for an understanding of society he labeled The Law of Three Stages. Such as

 1st stage, theological stage where people took a religious view of society.

 2nd stage, metaphysical stage where people understood society as natural (not supernatural).

 3rd or final stage was the scientific or positivist stage, which he believed to be the pinnacle of

social development.

 
 what is sociology?..............

• In the scientific stage, society would be governed by reliable knowledge and would be

understood in light of the knowledge produced by science, primarily sociology.

 However, Comte's approach is a highly simplified and ill-founded approach to understand

social development.

•In general, sociology deals with the human social behavior, especially the study of the origin,

organization, institution and development of human society i.e. the study of social lives of

humans, groups and societies.

 6.2. Sociology and Other Disciplines

• Sociology is considered as the mother of social sciences.

• Hence there exists a very close and intimate relationship between sociology and other social
sciences.

• For our precise understanding of the relationship between sociology and other social sciences we
have to discuss them individually, which are discussed below:

Sociology and Political Science:

 To see a very close and intimate relationship each and every social problem has a political cause.

 Sociology to draw it’s conclusions depends on political science. Any change in the political system
or nature of power structure brings changes in society.

 Hence Sociology takes the help of political science to understand the changes in society. Hence
both are inter-dependent.
 Sociology and Political Science………..

• And almost all political problems have a social cause and for the solution of these political
problems political science takes the help of sociology. Its difference also as shown below:
Sociology Political science
Is a science of society and social relationship Is a science of state and government.

Is very wide but scope Is limited scope

Is a general science Is a special science
Studied organized, unorganized and disorganized society Studies only politically organized society

Studies the social activities of man Studies political activities of man.

Is a new or young science Is an older science

Studies both formal and informal relations Studies only formal relations.

Analyses both conscious and unconscious activities of man Analyses only conscious activities of man
 Sociology and History:

• Sociology and history has very close and intimate relationship

• History helps and enriches Sociology. Like history is the store house of knowledge from
which sociology gained a lot.

• In addition, history is a record of past social matters, social customs and information about
different stages of life. Sociology uses this information.

• Similarly, sociology also provides help to history and enriches it. Like historians now study
caste, class and family by using sociological data.

• So, sociology provides the background for the study of history.

But in spite of the above close relationship and inter-dependence both the sciences differ from
each other from different angles which are described below.
 Sociology and history……..
• Sociology and history difference:

Sociology History
Is a science of society and is concerned Deals with the past events and studies
with the present society the past society

Is a modern or new subject Is an older social science

Is abstract Is concrete in nature
Very wide scope Limited scope
Is an analytical science Is a descriptive science
Studies a particular event as a social Studies a particular event in its entirety
phenomenon

Is a general science Is a special science

 Sociology and Economics:

• Sociology and economic also have close and intimate relationship. Such as,

• Economic welfare is a part of social welfare. For the solution of different economic problems such as

inflation, poverty, unemployment etc. economists take the help of sociology and takes into account

the social events of that particular time.

• At the same time society controls the economic activities of man. Economic draws its generalization

basing on the data provided by Sociology. Thus, economics cannot go far or develop without the help

of Sociology.

• Whereas, each and every social problem has an economic cause. For the solution of social problems

like dowry, suicide etc. Sociologists take the help from economics.
 Sociology and economic….
• Its difference also shown as:

Sociology Economic

Is a science of society and social relationships Is a science of wealth and choice.

Is a much younger science which has very Is comparatively an older science

recent origin

Is an abstract science Is concrete in nature

Is a general social science Is a special social science

Very wide Is very limited

Is concerned with the social activities of man Is concerned with the economic activities of man

Society is studied as a unit of study Man is taken as a unit of study

 Sociology and Psychology:

• Sociology and Psychology are mutually dependent on each other. One can’t comprehend itself

without the help from others.

• As human mind and personality is being influenced by social environment, culture, customs and

traditions hence psychology take the help from Sociology to understand this.

• To understand human nature and behavior properly psychology depends on sociology. There are

many psychological problems which must have a Social Cause.

• Psychology requires the help from Sociology to understand these social problems. Research in

Sociology richly contributes to psychology. Contributions and theories of many Sociologists

also are of great help to Psychologists.

 Sociology and Psychology…….

• Its difference:

Sociology Psychology

Is a science of society Is a science of mind

Has wide scope Has limited scope

Society is the unit of study in Individual is the unit of study

sociology

Studies social processes Studies mental processes

Studies and analyses human behavior Studies and analyses human behavior
from sociological angle from psychological angles
 Sociology and Anthropology:

 Sociology has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ means society, association & the
Greek word ‘logos’ means study or science.

•Hence Sociology is concerned with the association of human beings. It is a science that deals
with social groups.

Similarly, Anthropology is derived from the two Greek words ‘anthropos’ meaning man and
‘logos’ meaning study or science.

Accordingly, anthropology means study of man. As a science of man, it deals with man, his
works and behavior. Anthropology studies the biological and cultural development of man.

•Anthropology provides knowledge about ancient societies. Ideas and conclusions of

Sociology contributes to the research in anthropology.
 Sociology and Anthropology……………

• But in spite of the inter-relationship both differ from each other.

Sociology Anthropology

Is a science of society Is a science of man and his behavior

Scope is very wide Scope is very limited

Studies society as a whole Studies man as a part of society

Studies civilizations which are vast and dynamic Studies cultures which are small and static

Studies modern, civilized and complex societies Studies ancient and non-literate societies.

Is concerned with social planning whereas Is not concerned with social planning

Make suggestion for future Do not make any suggestion for future

Attitude has tended towards the practical and Towards pure understanding of the past
present
 Chapter Seven: Sub-fields and Importance of Sociology
7.1. The Sub-fields of sociology

Society is a vast and complicated phenomenon and therefore it is debatable which part of society
should be studied by sociology.

There is a great degree of difference of opinion regarding the definitions,  scope and subject matter of
sociology.

With so many different branches, it helps to analyze important aspects of every branch. Let us know
more about the different branches of sociology.
1. Theoretical Sociology

• These theories are based on theoretical perspectives and the assumption that social systems like
family, roles, culture, social structure, and society as a whole exists and are real. 
• These theories help sociologists in organizing ideas and thoughts amidst the huge cluster of theories
available and utilizing them simultaneously.
 The Sub-fields of sociology……….

2. Historical Sociology
•This is considered to be the study of social facts and social groups.
•The sociologists analyze and study the history of Hindu, Roman, Greek, etc. and other major
civilizations.
3. Sociology of Knowledge
•This branch of sociology helps to know and help to gain knowledge of social phenomena.
•They come to conclusions that highlight how knowledge is always influenced by society.
•The economic, religious , political and other interests save human belief and ideas.
4. Criminology
•This branch of sociology studies the criminal behavior of people or groups of people.
•Many questions are answered through it, like knowing the origin of the crime, its types of nature,
causes as well as law, punishment, police, etc.
 The Sub-fields of sociology……….

5. Sociology of Religion
•This branch of sociology helps to study the structure of religion in the social system.
• Since religion has a lot of impact on society and as no society is free from it.
•It analyses the social behavior of human beings towards religion and their faith, along with the
study of  religious constitutions and their role in the society. 
6. Sociology of Economy
•Studies the production, distribution, consumption and exchange of goods and services.
•Study also the economic activities of the society in which the focus is given about the socio-
cultural factors. 
7. Rural Sociology
• It studies rural society in a scientific way.
• It also studies rural life, social institutions, social structure, social processes, etc. of the rural
society.
 The Sub-fields of sociology……….

8. Urban Sociology
•It gives details about the social organizations of urban society as well as the social structure and
social interaction the urban people got through.
•It also studies the social pathology of urban society such as discrimination, crime, corruption,
robbery, beggary, loot, theft, unemployment, prostitution, environmental pollution, etc.
9. Political Sociology
•Study of different political ideologies of individuals, their origin, development and functions.
•Various activities and behavior of political parties are studied in this branch.
• It helps to understand the factors on which the political decisions are taken. 
10. Sociology of Demography
•Studies about the size, situation, composition, density, distribution, and measurement etc. of the
population. It also finds out the determining factors of population change and its trend.
 7.2. Importance of studying Sociology

 Provides us with what sociologists call the sociological imagination

 Helps us understand how social forces influence our goals, attitudes, behavior, and personality

 Helps to cast aside our own biased assumptions, stereotypes and ethno-centric thinking and practices to
become more critical, broad- minded and respectful in our interpersonal and inter- group relationships

 We can be more humane and people – centered; we give high value to human dignity

 We gain more knowledge about the conditions of our own lives, and about the way our society and
social system function

 We can also be more responsive to the various policies set by governments; and can suggest our own
policy initiatives and alternatives

 To provide the solutions to the contemporary social pathologies

 7.3. Sociological Research Methods

What is the Scientific Method?

 The scientific method is a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity
and consistency in research­ing a problem.

 Five basic steps in the scien­tific method that sociologists and other researchers follow. These are:
(1) defining the problem

 The first step in any sociological research project is to state as clearly as possible what you hope to
investigate.

 An operational definition needed and it is an explanation of an abstract concept that is spe­cific

enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept.

 For example, a sociologist interested in status might use membership in exclusive social clubs or
 Sociological Research Methods……….

2. Reviewing the Literature

• By conducting a review of the literature get the relevant scholarly studies and information this
leads researchers refine:
 the problem under study,

 clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data, and

 eliminate or reduce the number of avoidable mistakes they make.

3. Formulating the Hypothesis

• A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors is called a hypothesis.

• A research hypothesis must also be reasonably specific.

• Example "Young people have more fun“ is statements that lack the kind of precision that sociologists need in
order to collect suitable data.
 Sociological Research Methods……….
• In formulating a hypothe­sis, we do not imply that it is correct.

 We merely suggest that it is worthy of study, that the hypothe­sis should be scientifically tested
and confirmed, re­futed, or revised, depending on the outcome of the study.

• A hypothesis usually states how one aspect of hu­man behavior influences or affects another. These
aspects or factors are called variables.
 Income, re­ligion, occupation, and gender can all be variables in a study.

• If one variable is hypothesized to cause or influence another one, social scientists call the first
variable the independent variable.

• The second is termed the dependent variable because it is believed to be influenced by the
independent variable.
 For example, parents who attend church regularly are more likely to have children who are
regular churchgoers
 Sociological Research Methods……….
4. Collecting and Analyzing Data

• In order to test a hypothesis and determine if it is supported or refuted, researchers need to collect
information.

• To do so, they must employ one of the research designs like;

Selecting the Sample

• In most studies, social sci­entists must carefully select what is known as a sam­ple.

• A representative sample is a selection from a larger population that is statistically found to be typ­ical
of that population.

5. Developing the Conclusion

• the conclusion of a research study represents both an end and a beginning.

• It terminates a spe­cific phase of the investigation, but it should also generate ideas for future study.
 Chapter Eight: Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

 8.1. The Development of Sociology

 As a distinct discipline it emerged about the middle of the 19th century when European social observers began to
use scientific methods to test their ideas.

 The main three factors led to the development of sociology are:

 The first factor was Industrial Revolution by the mid 19th century
o Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production then it leads emergences of new occupations and
there is new avenues of employment.
o Migration of people to cities was increased by push and pull factor.

 Cities also greeted low pay, exhausting working hour, dangerous work, and noise

 Cities dwellers developed new ideas about democracy and political rights

 Therefore, the ideas about individual liberty, individual rights to life, and pursuit of happiness emerged, which
actually laid the foundation to future political revolution.
 The Development of Sociology……
 The second factor was imperialism.

o countries were exposed to radically different cultures when Europeans conquered part of the
world.
o Startled by these contrasting ways of life, they began to ask why cultures differed

 The third impetus was the success of the natural sciences.

 People moved to question by using the scientific method. Some of the scholars are to study the distinct discipline of
sociology:

 Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was French.

o 1st proposed the idea of applying the scientific method , known as positivism

o advocated for building new societies on science and industry rather than on religion and
landowner-serf relationship.
o credited with being the founder of sociology
 The Development of Sociology……

 Herbert spenser (1820-1903) is a british philosopher

o Sometimes called second founder of sociology

o Too believed that society operates under some fixed laws

o Considered that societies evolve from lower to higher forms, so this approach called as social
darwinism

o A social philosopher rather than a social researcher

 William grahman sumner (1840-1930) is an american

o Who has the same ideas with spencer

o He believed that the evolution of society paralleled biological evolution

 The Development of Sociology……

Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a German scholar.

o the key to human history is Class Conflict

o conflict between capitalist and working class would eventually be resolved by the emergence of an

egalitarian or classless society

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was French.

o His primary goal was sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline.

o identified the key role of social integration in social life and industrial revolution as producing a new

kind of social solidarity

o People were more likely to commit suicide if their ties to others in their communities were weak.

Ferdinand tonnies (1855-1936) was German scholar and has similar idea with Durkheim
 8.2. More Recent Sociological Perspectives

 Sociologists develop theories to explain social phenomena.

 A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts.

•There are four major theoretical perspectives in sociology. These are:

A.structural-functional,

B.social-conflict

C. symbolic-interaction theory and

D.Rolling theory

A. Structural-Functionalism

 originally attempted to meet individual biological needs (originally just functionalism)

 More Recent Sociological Perspectives……

 Later it focus on the ways social institutions meet social needs (structural-functionalism)

 It draws its inspiration primarily from the ideas of Emile Durkheim

 The major concepts developed in this theory are: order, structure, and function

But, this theory was challenged by the following main critics,

unable to account for conflict and social change because it focuses so intently on social order
and equilibrium in society

describe social institutions solely through their effects and, as a result, does not explain the cause
of those effects

 society does not have needs as a human being does; and even if society does have needs they
need not be met
 More Recent Sociological Perspectives……

B. Conflict theory

 argues that society is not about solidarity or social consensus but rather about competition
•The following are three primary assumptions of modern conflict theory:
i) Competition over scarce resources is at the heart of all social relationships. Competition
rather than consensus is characteristic of human relationships.
ii) Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures. Individuals and groups
that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained.
iii) Change occurs as a result of conflict between competing interests rather than through
adaptation. Change is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than evolutionary.

 In general, the key concepts of social conflict theory are conflict, struggle, power, inequality,
and exploitation.
 More Recent Sociological Perspectives……
• But, this theory came under sharp criticism,
It gives overemphasis on inequality and division, by neglecting how shared values generate unity
among members of the society.

it sees society in very broad terms by neglecting micro-level social realities.
C. Symbolic Interactionism/Integrationist
 The basic notion is that human action and interaction are understandable only through the
exchange of meaningful communication or symbols
 The theory concentrates on process, rather than structure, and keeps the individual actor at the
center.
•The main principles of symbolic interactionism as outlined by Blumer (1986) are:
1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that things have for them
2. These meanings arise of out of social interaction
3. Social action results from a fitting together of individual lines of action
• But, it criticized: it overlooks macro social structures (e.g., norms, culture)
 Chapter Nine: Culture and Socialization

9.1. The concept of culture

Culture refers to the total lifestyles of a people, including:

 ideas, values, knowledge, behaviors, and

 material objects that they share like bows and arrows, plows, factories and machines,
computers, books, buildings, airplanes, etc..

Culture determines;

 The food we eat, clothing

 Music or games we play

 How to express emotions,

 What is good or bad and what is high or low culture.

 Concept of Culture…………

• In social science, the term culture refers to the shared ways of thinking and believing.

• It can grow out of group experience and passed from one generation to the next.

• Different scholars defined culture according to their contexts

• Edward Taylor (1832-1917): defined culture as: “the complex whole which includes
knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habit acquired by
man as a member of a society”.

• Puddingstone defined culture as “the sum of total material and intellectual equipment
whereby people satisfy their biological and social needs.”

• Generally, culture can be seen as the patterns of behavior and products of patterns of
behavior. That means culture can be material and non-material.
 9.2. Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is learned: culture is gradually absorbed by learning and imitation from parents, teachers,
playmates,

2. Culture is shared: Culture is an attribute not of individuals per se but of individuals as members of group.

Enculturation unifies people by providing us with common experiences. For instance, immigrants and/or
their children seek to become enculturated in the culture of their heritage country.

3. Culture is transmitted: Culture is passed on to new members entering a society by the process of
socialization and learning. Formal education in the classroom is one way to transmitted culture.

4. Culture is symbolic: it consists tools, implements, utensils, customs, clothing, ornamental institutions etc.

5. Culture is integrated: Cultures are integrated not simply by their dominant economic activities and
related social patterns but also by sets of values, ideas, symbols and judgments.
 9.3. Types of Culture

• Even though, the particular content of culture varies from place to place, sociologists commonly classified
culture in to two basic elements.
These are:
A. material (Tangible) culture and
B. non-material (Intangible) culture.
• A. Material (Tangible) culture: are all products created by human interaction or those things that humans
make from the raw staff of nature, like: houses, computers, jewelry, oil paintings, books, cloths, schools,
churches and guided missiles just to name few.

Material culture refers to material objects that people produce and use

from the simplest tools, utensils, furniture, and clothing

to the most complex computer systems, architectural designs, automotive engines, and instruments used in
space exploration.
 Types of Culture………

These and other material products are important for understanding the way in which people live.

Natural objects such as mountains, rivers are not part of material culture.

• B. Non-material (Intangible) culture:

 It consists of the intangible creations of human interaction like:

 Values, beliefs, norms, ideas, knowledge, system of government, the language we speak and
behavior

2.4. Elements of Culture

 The basic elements of culture are:
 Values, Norms, Symbols, Language, Knowledge and beliefs

a. Value:
 An abstract standards typically coached in terms of standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty
that serve as broad guidelines for social living.
 Elements of Culture…….

 Examples of values: equal opportunity, achievement or success, material comfort, activity and work,
science, freedom, physical fitness, health, punctuality, wealth, education, competition and merit, honesty,
dignity of labor, patriotism, justice and democracy, and environmental protection,

 Values are not static they undergo change as social events and circumstances change.

b. Norms:

Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members. These are the shared
expectations of the people that govern their behavior. For instance;
 Proscriptive norms- mandating what we should not do. It is a way of forbidding from certain
actions.
 Prescriptive norms- what we should do.

There are four basic types of norms: These are: folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.

1. Folkways: are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant.
 Elements of Culture…….

 Breaking a folkway does not usually have serious consequences. Examples:

 Cultural forms of dress or
 eating three meals a day and
 brushing your teeth
 There are two types of Folkways: custom and fashion.

• a) Custom: - are folkways that seem relatively permanent and gradually become accepted as
appropriate modes of behavior. Example:
 observing particular religious holidays,

 participating in certain marriage ceremony.

 Customs resist change which is how they differ from fashions.’

• b) Fashions- Fashions are practices that are expected to undergo fairly rapid change. Eg.
 Elements of Culture…….

2. Mores: are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior.

 are associated with strong feelings of right and wrong.

 Unlike folkways, mores are morally significant. Examples:

 Religious doctrines,

 For instance, if someone were to attend church in the nude

 People who violate mores are considered unfit for society and may be

 ostracized, beaten, locked up in a prison or mental hospital, exiled, or even executed.

 3. Taboos: is a norm that society holds so strongly that violating it results in extreme disgust or
unfit to live in that society. For instance:
 in Muslim cultures, eating pork is taboo since pig is considered as unclean.

 At the more extreme end, incest and cannibalism are taboos in most countries.
 Elements of Culture…….

4. Laws: is a norm written down and enforced by an official law enforcement agency.
 Driving while drunk, theft, murder, and trespassing are all examples of laws in the USA.
 If violated, the person violating the law could get cited, owe a fine, or go to jail.
c. Symbols: is anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture. For example:
 Objects, gestures, whistle, flashing light, thumbs up, buildings, dress, the flag, and a type of color
are all symbols.
• These symbols are used as a means of communication and thereby becoming part of our language.
• Geometrically for example a cross is:
 merely two intersecting lines,
 but for Christians a cross symbolizes sacrifices, pain and sufferings, faith and the hope of salvation.
 Symbols are always man-made.
 Elements of Culture…….

d. Language: is an agent of culture that allows members of a society to communicate with one another.
 Language is verbal and non-verbal.

 enables people to store meanings, experiences, and to pass this heritage on to new generation.

 Language is the major means of cultural transmission. Human beings have developed different alphabet as

part of written language.

e. Knowledge: is the body of facts, beliefs, and practical skills that people acquired
 It partly consists of procedural information such as:

 how to drive a car or operate computer.

 also consists of information about places, peoples, and events.

 All these kind of knowledge are parts of our culture, our shared heritage.

f. Beliefs: Specific statements that people hold to be true. For instance, faith in God, failure is a learning

tool, lying is wrong, etc.

 9.5. The Concept of Socialization and Its Significance

Socialization is a process of making somebody social and fully human.

• Or more appropriately, it is a process whereby individual persons learn and are trained in the basic
norms, values, beliefs, skills, attitudes, way of doing and acting as appropriate to a specific social
group or society.

• It is an on-going, never ending process- from cradle to the grave

Socialization may be formal or informal.

 Formal when it is conducted by formally organized social groups and institutions, like schools,
religious centers, mass media universities, work places, military training centers, internships, etc.
 Informal when it is carried out through the informal social interactions and relationships at
micro-levels, at interpersonal and small social group levels.
 The most important socialization for us is that we get through informal agents like family,
parents, neighborhood and peer group influences.
 The Concept of Socialization and Its Significance……

• Without some kind of socialization, society would cease to exist.

• Socialization, thus, can be labeled as the way by which culture is transmitted and individuals are
fitted into the society's organized way of life.

9.6. Types and Patterns of Socialization

• There are two broadly classified patterns of socialization. These are:

1. Repressive socialization is oriented towards gaining obedience, while

2. Participatory socialization is oriented towards gaining the participation of the child.

These two patterns of socialization are summarized as follow in the following table.
 Types and Patterns of Socialization…….

Repressive Participatory
o Punishing wrong behavior o Rewarding good behavior

o Material rewards and punishment o Symbolic rewards and punishment

o Obedience of child o Autonomy of child

o Non-verbal communication o Verbal communication

o Communication as command o Communication as interaction

o Parent-centered socialization o Child-centered socialization

o Child's discernment of parents' wishes o Parents' discernment of child's needs

o Family as significant other o Family as generalized other

 Types and Patterns of Socialization…….
• There are different types of socialization; the major ones include:

 Primary or childhood socialization, secondary or adulthood socialization, de-socialization

and resocialization.

 Other minor types of socialization include:

 Anticipatory socialization and reverse socialization.

The details are presented below:

1. Primary or childhood socialization

• This is also called basic or early socialization.

• Socialization at this stage of life is a landmark; without it, we would cease to become social
beings.

• The human infant who is a biological being or organism is changed into a social being mainly at
this early stage.
 Types and Patterns of Socialization…….

• A child who does not get appropriate socialization at this stage will most likely be deficient in his/her
social, moral, intellectual and personality development.

2. Secondary or Adult Socialization

• It is necessitated when individual take up new roles, reorienting themselves according to their change’s
social statuses and roles, as in starting marital life.

• The socialization process at this stage may sometimes be intense.

 For example, fresh college graduates entering the world of work to start their first jobs, there are
quite many new roles to be mastered.

• Intense adult socialization may also occur among immigrants.

 When they go to other countries, they may need to learn the language, values, norms, and a host of
other custom and folkways, coupled with experiencing economic hardships may prove to be truly
stressful and most challenging.
 Types and Patterns of Socialization…….

3. Re-socialization and De-socialization

• Re-socialization means:

 the adoption by adults of radically different norms and lifeways and

 that are more or less completely dissimilar to the previous norms and values.

• Resocialization signifies the rapid and more basic changes in the adult life.

• The change may demand abandonment of one lifeway with a new one, which is completely
different from, and also incompatible with, the former.

• This quite so often happens as adult life in modern society’s demands sharp transitions and
changes.
 Types and Patterns of Socialization…….

• Desocialization refers to:

 stripping individuals of their former life styles, beliefs, values and attitudes and

 that they may take up other partially or totally new life styles, attitudes and values.

• The individuals have to abandon their former values and take up new ones in order to become
part of the new social group.

4. Anticipatory Socialization
 It refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in which individuals try to learn and

 internalize the roles, values, attitudes and skills of a social status or occupation for which
they are likely recruits in the future.
 It involves a kind of rehearsal and preparations in advance to have a feel of what the new
role would look like
 Types and Patterns of Socialization…….

5. Reverse Socialization

 It refers to the process of socialization whereby the dominant socializing persons, such as parents,
happen to be in need of being socialized themselves by those whom they socialize, such as
children.

 This idea seems to be associated with the fact that socialization is a two-way process.

 It involves the influences and pressures from the socializes that directly or indirectly induce
change the attitudes and behaviors of the socializers themselves.

 In reverse socialization, children, for example, may happen to socialize their parents in some roles,
skills, and attitudes which the latter lack.
 Quiz 2:
1. __________an element of culture which typically coached in terms of standards of desirability,
goodness, and beauty that serve as broad guidelines for social living.

2. ___________is a types of socialization the adoption by adults of radically different norms and
lifeways and that are more or less completely dissimilar to the previous norms and values.

3. What are the difference Proscriptive norms prescriptive norms?

4. List the patterns of socialization and explain them (2 points)?

 Chapter Ten: Rural Social Institutions
 Institution:

 MacIver defines as the established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group

activity.

 It is recognized as established set of rules, traditions and usages of every organization.

 It is a means of controlling individuals with set rules and are there to satisfy the primary needs of
man.

 Types of Social Institution:

1. Family:

 the most important social unit in any society and the building block of any society.

 fulfills reproduction and socialization basic function.

 Parents play the roles of nurturing, caring for, teaching and training children;

 children are expected to play the roles of good and teachable trainees.


 Rural Social Institutions…….

There are two types family. Such as;

 Nuclear family

o is a dominant form of family organization in modern, industrialized and urban societies.

o It usually consists of husband wife and dependent children.

 Extended family

o is dominates in traditional, agrarian and rural societies.

o consists of husband, wife/ wives, their children, and other relatives.

 Rural Social Institutions…….

Main functions of Family

1. Regulation of sexual activity:

• Every culture regulates sexual activity in the interest of maintaining kinship organization and property
rights.

• One universal regulation is the incest taboo, cultural norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage
between certain kin.
• First the incest taboo minimizes sexual competition within families by restricting legitimate
sexuality to spouses.
• Second incest taboo forces people to marry themselves outside their immediate families, which
serve the purpose of integrating the larger society.
• Third, since kinship defines people’s rights and obligations towards each other, reproduction
among close relatives would hopelessly confuse kinship ties and threaten social order.
 Rural Social Institutions…….

2. Reproduction is Perhaps the only function that seems to have been left to a great extent untouched

3. Socialization of children:

4. Social placement: Parents confer their own social identity – in terms of race, ethnicity, religion, and social

class – on children at birth.

5. Care of the sick and elderly: Family has been a big insurance against the old age as well as during sickness.

6. Protective function: Family provides some degree of physical, economic, and psychological security to its

members.

• People view the family as a “haven in the heartless world”, looking to kin for physical protection, emotional

support, and financial assistance.

7. Economic production: Prior to industrialization, the family constituted an economic team. Family members

cooperated in producing what they needed to survive.

 Rural Social Institutions…….

Marriage of family:

• is a legally sanctioned relationship of two or more people, usually involving economic cooperation
as well as normative sexual activity and child-bearing that people expect to be enduring.

• usually involves an explicit contract (written or unwritten) or understanding and is entered into with
assumption that it will be a permanent arrangement.

Based on the intimacy with social class and status marriage can be endogamy or exogamy:

 Endogamy:

o The practice of mate selection from the same social category or within a certain groups.

o It limits marriage prospects to others of the same age, race, religion, or social class considering pure
kinship and keeping property.

o It creates strong ties between descent groups.

 Rural Social Institutions…….
 Exogamy:

• The practice that mandates marriage between different social categories.

• It could imply an incest taboo, which could also be transformed into written law.

On the other hand based on the number of couples needed within single households, marriage

can be seen as;

• Monogamy - A form of marriage joining two partners.

 At a time the two partners are only in “one union”.

 The two partners may divorce and enter into a new union at a time, which may be referred to as

serial monogamy. This practice is mostly followed in technologically advanced societies.

 Straight monogamy: In this remarriage is not allowed.

 Rural Social Institutions…….

• Polygamy - A form of marriage uniting three or more people and it exists in three specific forms,

including

 Polygyny- A form of marriage uniting one male and two or more females. Islamic nations

permit men up to four wives, though they have to fulfill certain conditions.

 Polyandry - A form of marriage uniting one female with two or more males.

 Group marriage - A group of men marrying a group of women. It is an odd situation.

 Leveriate is a practice of a widow is expected to marry the brother (or some close male relatives)

of her dead husband.

 Sororate is a practice that when a wife dies a widower (her husband) marrying her sister.
 Rural Social Institutions…….
Similarly, just as societies regulate mate selection, so they designate where a couple resides after
marriage. Such as:
 Patrilocal: A residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband’s
family.
 Matrilocal: A residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife’s family.

 Avunulocal: Married couples live with or near husband’s mother brother.

 Ambilocal (bilocal): the two couples have a choice of living with the relative of wife or husband.

 Neolocal: A residential pattern in which a married couple lives apart from the parents of both the
spouses.

• In preindustrial societies, most newlyweds live with one set of parents, gaining economic assistance
and economic security in the process.
 Rural Social Institutions…….

2. Religious Institutions

• It is responsible for meeting (providing) spiritual needs of the members of the society.

• There are puzzling questions about the meaning of the human life, human destiny, the universe, and
other questions.

• Religion and related institutions like magic provide explanations for these puzzling paradoxes of life
and provides meaning and purpose for life.

• It helps people to cope with purposelessness, meaninglessness and sense of alienation and frustration.

• These institutions also help members of society conform to social values and norms, and play their
expected social roles appropriately.

• They also provide a sense of social solidarity among members of society.

 Rural Social Institutions…….

3. School (Educational Institution

• This social institution is responsible for providing training for the members of society and serves
as center of knowledge production, exchange, and distribution.

• Generally, educational institutions are responsible for the vertical and horizontal transmission of
material and non-material cultures.
 Vertical transmission means over time from one generation to another generation; whereas

 horizontal transmission means over geographical space or from one society to another.

• Educational institutions also play the role of preparing members of society for the statuses and
roles that re associate with being good citizens and workers, holding various occupations .
 Rural Social Institutions…….

4. Leadership and Political Institutions

• Responsible for protecting the society from internal disorder, crime and chaos; as well as from
external threats and invasion.

• Also responsible for maintaining peace and order at micro and macro levels; enforcing social
control; and maintaining the welfare and well-being of society.

• In traditional or rural societies tribal chiefs, elders and shamans exercised control.

• In large and complex societies political authority has to be organized and structured.

• In today’s world political and economic systems are intertwined.

• In both industrialized and developing societies, governments play a major role in shaping the
economy.
 Rural Social Institutions…….

5. Economic institutions

• Every society needs to make effective use of the scarce resources.

• So, responsible for organizing the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods
and services
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