Agric Extension

Muswehaurari C Diploma notes CHIBERO COLLEGE
Extension - It means to widen and enlarge a psychological or physical area of need.
Agricultural Extension
-A service or system which assist farm people through educational procedures in
improving farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency. It is
also increases income bettering their levels of living and lifting the social and
educational standards of rural life.
-Agricultural extension is an out of school educational process which has its goal the
communication of useful information to the people and it helps them to use it and
improve their living standards.
An extension system- Refers to an extension organisation
Extension process - working with rural people trough out of social education.
Extension services – a programme for agriculture development and rural welfare
which employs the extension process.
An extension approach- It is the style of action within a system, it is more like a
doctrine for the system which informs, stimulates and guides such aspects of the
system such as its structure, its leadership, its programme, its resources and its
linkages.
An extension strategy- Is a chosen course of action such as multiple- step
information flow strategy or multi- media strategy for example, savings clubs,
commodity groups and rural women groups.
Extension methods – Refer to the educational techniques used by the extension
system particularly by its field staff in communicating with farmers.
Roles of extension in agriculture development

- Improvement of the farming system, i.e. the efficient use of existing and new
factors of production.
- Promote organised co-operation and other means of raising the capacity for self-
help e.g. a problem of poor veld management needs the whole community to
institute proper grazing management and even establish a grazing scheme.
- Assist farmers in the identification of markets for surplus produce.
- Focus on the maintenance of soil fertility and the prevention of environmental
degradation through excessive exploitation of resources without the necessary
conservation measures being taken. (e.g. conservation of land, vegetation and
wildlife).
- Assist in the improvement of nutritional levels of farm families by encouraging
intercropping of major crops with crops like pumpkins, sugar beans, sweet
potatoes, cowpeas, mbambara nuts, and e.g. consumed at household level.
- Encourage members of the community to engage in non-agriculture income-
generating projects that would help meet family needs and the procurement of
agriculture inputs.
- Help the farmer to identify sources of credit, e.g. A.F.C, Agrifoods, e.t.c.
- To articulate the felt needs of the farmers to other interested groups
Objectives of extension
1. To assist farmers to discover ad analyse their problems and unfelt needs.
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2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to

solve their own problems.
3. To disseminate information based on research and or practical experience in
such a manner that people would accept it & put it in actual practice.
4. To keep the research workers informed of the people’s problems from time to
time so that they offer solutions that are timely based on research.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF EXTENSION IN ZIMBABWE
Development of agriculture extension BEFORE independence

Development of agriculture extension was closely linked to the political and
economic history of the country, i.e. allocation of virtually all resources, provision of
critical agricultural services like extension, research, training and marketing was
warped in favour of whites.
Services were oriented to the needs of commercial farmers, e.g. location of
agricultural research and experiment stations in the higher potential white dominated
large-scale commercial farming sector. They were therefore less accessible, or
sensitive to the needs of the majority smallholder farmers residing in communal and
resettlement areas.
Before political independence in 1980 this division physically and developmentally, of
the agricultural sector along two separate entities was clear. Whites (large-scale
commercial farms), blacks smallholder farms in the Tribal Trust Lands (T.T.Ls, now
communal areas).
Development of extension in the commercial farming sector

- Started at the turn of the century (1900) with the formation of the Department of
Agricultural extension. This was a response to the realisation that many settlers
had no prior farming experience.
- Research and demonstration trials aimed to find appropriate husbandry methods
to increase agriculture production.
- Farm visits by conservation and extension officers.
- The Rhodesian Agricultural Journal (established in 1903, for channelling and
disseminating information on new agricultural practices and technologies).
- Expansion in the range and scope of agricultural activities.
The increase in demand of agriculture and research services due to an influx of more
white settler farmers at the end of the second world war saw the formation of the
Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR & SS), which was established
in 1948. Conservation and extension was a branch in DR & SS and in 1949 this
department was upgraded to be the Department of Conservation and Extension
(CONEX) aimed to provide agriculture advisory services mostly to large-scale
commercial farmers.
CONEX: - worked with few black, small-scale farmers through interpreters (who were
demonstrators promoted to supervisory positions)
- Was established basically to serve the large-scale white commercial farmers.
- Its policy was to work with farmer organisations and associations (structures
noticeably lacking among black farmers at the time).
- It established and maintained strong links with the DR & SS, and the public
research institutions.
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Results of this extension effort:

-increased rate adoption of technologies generated.
-Significant improvement in cropped area and its productivity, e.g. between 1965 and
1980 yield of maize; tobacco; and cotton increased by 31%, 42% and 48%
respectively.
-For livestock, new technologies, e.g. pen feeding, and protein supplementation were
widely adopted and established this country as a major high-quality beef producer.
Development of extension in the communal sector

Prior to colonisation, agriculture in Zimbabwe was based on shifting cultivation.
The earliest record initiatives to providing formal Agriculture services for small holder
black farmers was by Emery Alvord who promoted the use of manure and crop
rotations to increase soil fertility and crop yield. The impressive results attracted the
colonial Government and in 1924 the scheme was adopted in all T.T.Ls.
In 1926 the Department of Agriculture engaged Alvord as the “Agriculturist for the
Instruction of Natives” and was helped by eleven black demonstrators. They were a
sub-department to the department of Native Development. In 1927 the first
extension workers were deployed into the T.T.Ls and more trainee demonstrations
with 5-6 years primary education recruited for a two-year agriculture-training course.
Results of this extension effort: - it was a failure due to: -

-Alvord’s extension policy was based on persuasion but now under direct control of
the district commissioners it became rigid, and prescriptive as the commissioners
wanted to enhance their authority over the local inhabitants.
-Numerous transfers and institutional reorganisations between various government
ministries and departments reduced the effectiveness of this extension effort e.g.
some of the changes.
1929 – Department of Native Development
1933 – Returned to be a Division of Native Affairs
1933 – Become the Department of Native Agriculture
1953 – Come under ministry of agriculture (Southern Rhodesia)
1969 – ministry of Internal Affairs under a new department of Agriculture
Development (D.E.V.A.G).
- Demonstrations with policing powers were feared, considered irrelevant
government employees by their clientele.
- D.E.V.A.G had a few specialist in the senior management positions since most
specialist agriculture start were retained at CONEX.
- D.E.V.A.G was poorly resourced while CONEX coming under federal government
was more resource-endowed.
- D.E.V.A.G extension workers tended to work with a few selected “progressive”
farmers, with the rest considered primitive, too traditional or laggards.
- Escalation of liberation war in the 70s led to: - extension workers being
withdrawn, or forced out by local people as they were viewed as representatives
of the minority government therefore informers and collaborators.
- At the beginning of 1979 all extension services virtually collapsed to intensity of
war.
Benefits
- In some activities less prescriptive programmes were conducted, e.g. the
initiation and promotion of the master Farmer Training Scheme. This aimed to
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produce a “critical mass” of trained farmers to occupy the small-scale commercial

farms (purchase areas) that were established after the end of Second World War.
However many were trained but a few benefited.
- Group Development Areas (G.D.As) in Mashonaland east province aimed to
increase the coverage of extension activities and strengthen the spirit and
practice of group and community participation were established.
- The groups however were not endorsed by the leadership as policy; were
subjected to continuous re-organisations that characterised the public sector
management system therefore unsustainable.
Development of extension AFTER independence

- CONEX and DEVAG merged in July 1981 into the Department of agriculture,
extension and technical services (AGRITEX). This sows many white,
experienced staff resigning or retiring.
- The coercive and prescriptive approach stopped.
Overview of agriculture extension in Zimbabwe

- A number of extension systems have emerged to complement the ministry-based
approach e.g. commodity based systems for tobacco; input supply systems and
NGOs.
- Biasing agriculture support services to the previously neglected smallholder sub
sector. The large-scale commercial sector is serviced mainly through private
input firms, research institutions and other private organisations.
- AREX is a major agriculture extension organisation and fall under the ministry of
lands and agriculture development. This ministry also houses departments of
research, veterinary services, agriculture education, and land surveying.
The objectives of AGRITEX

The implementation of government policy through the provision of technical and
extension service. Its official mandate (or mission statement) is stated as:
-To assist in the implementation of the policy of government in relation to the

development of agriculture industry of the country, taking into consideration the rural
development essential for successful, production and stable agriculture.
-To assist in the productivity of agriculture with special emphasis on the communal,
resettlement, co-operative, small-scale farmers and large scale farmers in that
priority order.
-To stimulate the adoption of appropriate proven agricultural conservation and
management practices leading to increased sustained and profitable production.
-To promote the development of people on the land thus improving the standard of
living and quality of life.
The agents clients/ clientele

1. Large scale farmers
2. Small scale farmers
3. Newly resettled farmers (A1-A2)
4. Communal farmers
5. School children
6. Interested organisations – e.g. health organisation (nutrition gardens)
7. Assistance is also obtained from organisations like
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C.F.U (Commercial Farmers Union)

Z.F.U (Zimbabwe Farmers Union)
I.C.F.U (Indigenous Commercial Famers Union)
A strong extension service must have the following attributes:

1. Have a stable financial support.
2. Be awarding competitive salaries with incentives for professional development.
3. Have effective linkages with research.
4. Have reliable on going and in-service training
5. Have an ordination to serve and understand the families
6. Must have a statutory basis and mission
7. Have adequate field officers, transport and communication
Roles of an extension agent

An extension agent help farmers increase production of their farms irrespective of
size and improve their living standards.
1. As a change agent
Introduces new agricultural knowledge, skills and attributes into community. (e.g.
fertiliser, centre pivot, drip irrigation, organic farming, agro forestry) the farm
manager
NB The desire for change must come from the people themselves.
2. An advisor/educator
Develops knowledge skills and attributes to farmers to solve problems by their
own efforts e.g. give farmers practical demonstrations of appropriate innovations
Help them to locate farm supplies and equipment
Advise them on sources of credits
Technological improvements and organisational improvements e.g. formation of
pressure groups
He also advises policy makers on issues pertaining agriculture.
3. Coordinator
Facilitates integrated solutions for local projects concerned with agric. For some
projects to be successful, one needs help from other organisations/ministries e.g.
(Nutritional gardens) health
4. Manager/Organiser
He/she plans, organises and evaluate field work activities e.g. planning meetings,
organising field days, shows, green shows, vet courses. She should be able to
manage & effectively control an extension office and its activities.
5. Facilitator/Enabler
He/she indirectly stimulates groups to make their own decisions. e.g. influencing
or assisting people to use available resources e.g. live community gardens near
water sources.
6. Advocator
He/she is the spokesperson for a group of farmers. He/she pub forward the
collection of data related to a specific problem e.g. erosion with feedback of
findings and recommendations to the farmers e.g. cultivation along contour ridge
observing 30m from stream banks, afforestation, reforestation, intercropping etc.
7. Motivator- (motivation is what prompts people to behave or change behaviour)
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Influences a farmer to carry out a specific risk e.g. supplementary feeding of draft
animals during period dry such that the animals supply draft power when rain
season begins.
8. Employee
He/she must serve faithfully the change agency i.e. the government e.g.
regulations like thou should drink, avoid absenteeism.
9. A Leader – The extension agent should inspire confidence and trust in farmers
he/ she serves, set them an example and take the lead in initiating activities.
10. A catalyst
Assist farmers to be able to identify their problems and analyse them.
This can be achieved by following:
i. Building trust in relations with people.
ii. Having a feel of them – getting into their shoes.
iii. Seeing the problems through their eyes.
iv. Making rational decisions with and for the people.
v. Training opinion leaders as change agents, organising them for group
action and promoting the concept of self-help.
NB The front line extension agent must be an “all-rounder” person with grounding
in Agricultural science.
Role Levels of Extension Agents

A. Area level
1. Give technical advice to the farmers in direct contact.
2. To advise a technological or organisational improvement.
3. Act as a change agents to increase crop, livestock, and land, labour and
capital productivity.
4. Ensure availability of inputs resources for extensions purpose
5. Coordinate work and other similar agents for proper delivery of extension
services.
B. Roles at District Level
1. Supervision and training of extension agents – it must seek to coordinate
activities to do with now innovations. Supervision must stimulate and provide
atmosphere (farmer and agents)
2. Testing research findings on pilot trails and building them into extension
programme.
C. At Regional Level
1. Advising district staff on national objectives
2. Coordination of programmes with those of agents like Seed Companies
extension activities and Z.T.A activities.
3. Provision of special services e.g. agricultural information in form of bulletins,
posters, radio equipment etc.
4. Supervision of functions at district level
5. Programme preparation (framework) and control of implementation.
Research Extension Farmer Linkages
Reasearch Extension
Farmers
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Researchers
Carry out research to solve problems identified at the farm level e.g.
 Evaluate/test technology Improve on existing technology
 Learn from farmers how their innovations have been adopted
 Validate and improve on farmers discoveries and traditional methods of
management
Extension personnel
 Interpret research findings and communicate them to farmers.
 Help farmers to identity their problems and communicate them to researchers.
 Help transmit useful information from farmer to farmer.
 Carry out research on farmer’s problems e.g. storage losses on market problems.
 Provide feedback to farmers and research.
Farmers
 Put research findings into practice and identify farming constraints.
 Adopt innovations to suit their circumstances
NB: Farmers are experimenters in their own right.
Scope of Extension
1. Efficiency in Agricultural production
2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilisation
3. Conversation development and use of natural resources
4. Management of the farm in the home
5. Leadership development
6. Community development
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
A conflict is a disagreement between two or more individuals on the goals and
targets to be achieved.
Common conflicts include
1. Intra-role conflict – Inward uncertainty about oneself. i.e. inability to handle
something.
2. Inter role conflict – conflict between individuals, especially to deal with roles.
Management of Conflicts by an Extension Agent
1. Avoidance
i. Non attention – ignoring the mis-understandings on the assumption that it will
resolve on its own eventually.
ii. Physical separation – move the concerned parties apart on the assumption
that the conflict will diminish on its own.
iii. Limited interaction – this is permitting only the concerned parties to meet for
formalised situations or purposes.
2. Diffusion
i. This has to do with buying time until the conflicts become less emotional.
ii. Smoothing – deals with playing down differences and highlighting the
similarities and common interests only. One end up realising that is not far
from the other.
iii. Compromise – this is a give and take exchange which results in neither a
winner nor a looser.
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3. Confrontation
i. It identifies the source of the conflict and discuss them.
ii. Problem solving – here views are presented, emotions are exhibited
attributes and perceptive are highlighted
NB issues on who is wrong are not discussed but what is wrong.
COMMUNICATION AND MOTIVATION
COMMUNICATION
Is the act of getting a sender and receiver to reach a common understanding of a
particular message.
A means by which people are linked to achieve a common purpose
Attributes of communication
 Involves both parties establishing a common understanding
 Involves an element of influence
 There is active participation of each part in the process
Purpose of Communication in Extension
1. To be understood
2. To get things done
3. To get accepted
4. To overcome ignorance, poverty and diseases
5. To attain objectives of economic and social wellbeing.
Ways of communication
1. Top down approach – information could be flowing from a higher level to that
one which is lower.
2. Bottom up – information flows it works on the assumption that the closer one
is the source of problem, the greater one’s ability to influence decisions.
Encoding process – where the idea should be related to the consumer
Decoding process – involves breaking down the message into detail which
reveals the analytic perspectives of the transmitter hence there should be
synchronisation of perspectives between the receivers on the ideas between
them
To be effective the transmitter must
1. Know the subject
2. Know the audience – i.e. people have different beliefs, opinions.
3. Know how to put the message across.
NB Credibility of the communicator depends on the following:
1. Source of information
2. Motives of communication
3. Reliability of information
4. Attributes and behaviour of the communicator.
Effective Communication from an audience point of view depends on:
i. Confidence with the communicator
ii. Competence expertise related to qualification
iii. Trustworthiness
iv. Appearance and style
v. Status – the high and prestigious the communicator is, the more likely the
individual is to be influential.
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Elements of Communication
Feedback/
Sender
Response
Channel Message
Treatment
By C.V
Sundaram
1. Sender – starts the communication process
He/she decides what method of communication to use or the objectives. To
effective the transmitter must: knows his subject, know his audience
People have different beliefs, opinions, values and goals. Know how to put the
message across.
2. Message – it is the idea that is communicated (content). This must be expressed
in a language understood by both the sender and audience.
This could be verbal or nonverbal e.g. gestures, facial expressions, signs
Factors which influence the message:
 The message must be kept short
 Must be in line with stated goals
 Must be delivered in reduced steps
 Simple language and aids and in logical order
 Suitably timed
3. Treatment – is what is done to create understanding and motivation for receiver
action. This involves selection of right words and expressions to use in conveying
the message.
4. Channel – is the path followed by the message
Is the means by which a message travels from the sender to the receiver
The following channels are used in extension
Office calls, phone calls

a. Personal contract Individual letters
Farm and home visit
b. Group approach Method demonstration

Result demonstration
General meetings
Field days and tours
c. Mass media leaflets, newspapers, circular letter

radio, exhibits, posters
5. Receiver(s)
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The intended consumer of message. The person(s) to whom the message is being
sent. The audience characteristics, needs, abilities and their relationship with the
sender of the message are important.
Factors to consider when identifying the audience: occupation, age and sex,
education, the audience exposure
The extension worker needs to have some knowledge on social set up of his
audience
6. Feedback/Response
Sent to the sender/source by recover. It is necessary for verifying the degree
to which a message has been both accurately transmitted and understood.
Noise
During transmission the message may be blocked and this result in distortion or
failure of the message to get to the receiver
What causes noise?
1. Language differences
2. Poor choice of channel
3. Audience destruction – e.g. when people tend to move in out of hall
4. Bad sight – due to fatigue
5. Too large an audience
6. Unclear formation of the message by the transmitter.
Barriers to communication
Ineffective and breakdown of oral communication is caused by:
1. Poor planning
2. Poor management structure of organisation
3. Vague (unclear) performance standards
Common barriers
a. Sender related
1. Lack of communication skills – e.g. poor audibility, grammatical errors,
incorrect word usage poor delivery of message, incorrect spelling, poorly
organised speech or sentence incorrect punctuation of words.
2. Lack of frame references – People perceive the same thing differently but
assume that other people perceive it in the same way.
3. Lack of communication goals – lack of continuity
b. Receiver related
Basically the perception of the receiver
1. Evaluate tendency – makes judgement about the sender message hence
he/she cannot perceive the message since the meaning would now be
distorted and can be registered in the mind of the receiver.
2. Pre conceived ideas – interpretation influenced by the other opinion about
the idea being communicated.
c. Selective listening
People tend to seek favourable message that satisfy the needs and they deny
or distort those that those are threatening to them.
d. Situation related barriers
Are divided into 3 categories
1. Interpersonal barriers
It is a characteristics that distinguishes the organisation from the. The enduring
characteristics may affect the following:
i. Frequency of communication
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ii. The flow of communication i.e. lateral upwards or down wards

2. Organisation barriers
i. Group size – as the group size increase, the amount available for open
discussion decreases.
ii. Status – people prefer to communicate with people of upper status in order
gain prestige
iii. Association – errors made by someone in the part are linked to the present
repeated errors without justification
iv. Expectation – attitude of communicator can introduce bias to communicate
v. Spatial constraints – physical distance restricts the amount of communication
between members.
3. Technology barriers
1. Words would mean different things to people and they need to be used,
understood and interpreted the same way by both the sender and the receiver
(semantics)
2. Information overlaid – when receivers and bombarded by the more messages
than they can handle.
3. Visual behaviour
Are silent messages that assist in the accurate transfer of meaning e.g. posture,
gestured, facial expressions, body movement, touch.
4. Time pressure – if time is not sufficient to prepare and provide, it causes poor
communicate.
5. Lack of interpersonal sensitivity
When sender is insensitive of language use which means differently to the needs
and feelings of others.
MOTIVATION
It is the drive or urge to have action to satisfy ones needs.
Needs are satisfied by results which are the outcomes of our work (sweet comes the
sweat)
Motivation is seen to direct our efforts and behaviour towards attainment of specific
goal.
Motivation types
1. Intrinsic/Self-Motivation
The famer exhibits the desire and to learn.
This enthusiasm needs to be maintained by the trainer.
2. Extrinsic/External Motivation
Farmers need to be motivated by the trainer through various styles and techniques.
Motivation needs
1. Need for power
Farmers with high need for power usually seek high positions and recognition to
influence and control others.
2. Need for affiliation
Farmers always want to belonging and have membership of a given social group to
maintain the good relationships.
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3. Need for achievement

Farmers need to achieve benefits economy and hence often develop a strong desire
for success and fear of failure.
The process governing choices made by farmers can be best explain by motivation
theories e.g.
 The process theory
 The content theory
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
Actualisation- self fulfillment
Self Esteem-Stability, Self respect,

Self importance
Social-Love, Affection,
Companionship
Safety-Thrift free environment job

security
Physiological-water, Food, Air,

Sleep, Shelter
Attributes
- It emphasises that needs are organised inn a hierarchy of importance in a
series of manner.
- Each level must be satisfied before the next one become the motivating
factor.
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs focuses on satisfaction of basic and illustrates
them in a simple pyramidal configuration.
The significance of the theory
It relies in that the behaviour of farmers is normally dominated by the lowest groups
of needs which remain to be satisfied.
In practise, the lower level needs are interpreted as (food, clothes and shelter)
Higher levels needs are concerns for future e.g. incomes, maximisation of one’s
potential and self-contentment.
Douglas McGregor’s X and Y Theory

Theory X
This was based on the following assumptions
1. The average human being has as inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if
he/she can.
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2. Most people must be concerned or forced/controlled directed or forced/controlled

directed and also threatened to get them put more effort to achieve the set goals.
3. Average human being prefers to be directed to avoid responsibility.
4. Average human has little ambition and also wants security.
Theory Y
Was based on the following assumption:
1. There is no inherent dislike of work in human.
2. The degree of commitment depends on the rewards to be obtained.
3. Man will exercise direction and control in service to which there is committed.
4. If conditions are right, man will not only accept responsibility but will seek for it.
5. A high proportion of people are capable of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in
solving the community problems.
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF ADULT LEARNING

An adult – someone who is mature (physically and biologically), responsible for
yourself, your actions, make independent decisions and behaviour and physically
(biologically) mature
An adult can be defined by law e.g. in Zimbabwe a person who is over 18 years in
Zimbabwe is an adult.
 Can be defined as fully grown person who is physically and biologically mature
 Somebody who is able to make responsible and independent decisions about
yourself.
Learning
Acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes. The attitudes will be evaluated by changes
in behaviour.
Andragogy – art and science of teaching adults
Pedagogy – science and art of teaching children
There are 4 basic concepts which demonstrate the different between andragogy and
pedagogy
Basic concepts are:
1. Self-concept
2. Experience
3. Readiness to learn
4. Time perspective/orientation to learning
Adult learning Child learning
1. Self-concept – it means the way - Dependent (guided by adults)
you view yourself. Autonomous
(make own decision) or
independent
2. Experience – adults have useful - Limited life experience
experience therefore utilise the
experience and recognise the
experience
3. Redness to learn – make sure - Curriculum is set
that you are able to capture/put
an input to farmers such that they
become ready to learn.
- Adults know what they to learn
and when they wasn’t to learn it.
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- Adults want functional education

i.e. skills, knowledge and
attributes that help them to solve
their immediate problems.
- They are mainly focused on
application
4. Time perspective and
orientation to learning
- Learning is problem cantered - Subject cantered
- Want to apply learning to life or - Learn for the future
work situations
- Limited time perspective i.e. do
not have a lot of time to spare for
only one programme
PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING

1. Motivate the learner to learn
2. The learning situation should take learners into account the individual
differences
3. New learning should take into account the learners present knowledge, skills
and attributes
4. What is to learnt should be reinforced
5. Learning situation should give opportunities for the practical.
6. The learner should be an active participant, trying new responses rather than
just learning.
7. Materials to be learnt should be presented in a logical manner; sequence
brings meaning to the learning situation.
8. Coaching and guidance should be given in the development of new
responses.
9. What is leant should be capable of being successful generalised form the
training situation to the job.
10. Materials to be learnt should be presented in a way that emphasise the
characteristics to be learnt and do so in a way which is as meaningful to the
learner as possible.
11. Adult behaviour is not fixed but changes in response to internal external
pressures. Adults learnt through-out their lifetime.
12. Adults enter learning activities with an organised set of descriptions and
feeling based on past experience.
13. Past experience is integrated into self-concept and the learner needs to feel
his past experiment is respected and valued in order to value it himself.
14. Past experience of the learner is helpful resource and a potential hindrance.
15. Experience becomes more important with age.
16. A positive self-concept is more responsive to learning and adults learn best in
such environments.
17. Adults learn best when they manage their own learning.
18. Experience can de stabilise learning and lead to a loss of confidence.
19. Present time personal needs require respect recognition.
20. Adults tend to focus on the problem and are motivated to learn in recent
areas.
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21. Solutions to personal problems must come from his personal value self-
concept.
22. A leaners learning voluntarily in pursuit of positive goals is less likely to feel
threatened.
23. Feedback is essential to modify behaviour.
24. Success in satisfying needs/reach objectives becomes reinforce and motive
for further learning.
Failure may become reinforce for avoiding change.
25. Limited arousal will assist learning but excessive arousal threatens and
prevents learning through fear, stress and anxiety.
26. Learning behaviour of adults experiencing emotions/stress/anxiety may result
in independent behaviour and a decline in learning and withdrawal.
27. Adults learn best when they set their own pace.
28. Adults like to learn quickly and are reluctant to engage in learning that does
not have immediate and pragmatic application.
29. Adults learn best when in health, rested and not experiencing stress.
30. Abilities e.g. verbal, mental, requiring speed and physical flexibility and
memory recall or past experience decline over the age of 50.
31. Learning activities are cyclical, sequential and in directional when carried out
at continuous level.
Leaners wish to start with their own.
32. Adult learning focuses on autonomous mastery of one’s life for participation
and belonging in groups.
NB Both needs are important and omission of provides less satisfaction for
the adult learner.
1. Why do adults learn?
Learning is a self-active process. (motivation)
These motives include.
1. Security (economic, social physiological)
Survival – environment
Acceptance in society – desire for companionship and membership of groups.
Recognition – prestige, achievement and being looked up to.
New experience – new ideas and adventure
To pass time –
Relevance – in order to cope with particular situation
2. How to adults learn?
1. Learning from experience
2. Learning from peers – learn most from their equals, people of similar age and
from similar background.
3. Discussion – as adults grow older their memory weakens but ability to observe,
think and analyse improve. All are teachers and learners.
4. Learning is easiest when a new idea or skill is put across in simplest and
cheapest way possible.
5. Through discovery – research has shown that adults remember
20% of what they hear
40% of what they see
80% of what they discover for themselves (S. Laver 1992)
3. When do adults learn?

1. When they have strong desire to learn
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2. When they have a clear and well define objective.

3. When they exert an effort to learn
4. People learn best when what they learn brings about satisfaction i.e. when what
they learnt is rewarding.
5. When they are respected – need to be respected for the wealth of experience,
skills, ideas, energy and creativity they have. Show the respect by allowing them
participate as individuals.
4. Where do adults learn?
1. Work area and fields
2. Classrooms and training centres
3. Informal gathering – beer halls, funerals and weddings and buses.
RURAL SOCIOLOGY
Socio – means society
Logy – is the science of
Sociology – means the science of society (According to Augustine Conte who lived
1789-1857). Sociology – examines interaction and relationship in general i.e. family,
community, political groups, industries, schools and religious groups and religious
groupings.
Society – means the generality of people or humanity or the studies of how human
beings interact.
Perspectives
1. It is the scientific study of human collectives and interactions. (i.e. how individuals
or groups influence society and vice versa).
2. It is the description and explanation of social behaviour, social structure in terms
of people perceptions of social environment.
3. Important aspects can be derived i.e.
Deals with interaction of human beings, has to do with social structure, and has
to do with culture.
Man can not realise him/herself in isolation hence it is the society helps one to
develop our self-concept – That points at e.g. ugliness, prettiness, tallness,
shortness, cleverness etc.
Structure of communities
District administrator
Councillor
WARDCO -chairperson
VIDCO- Chairperson
Generally social interaction is the action that mutually affects two or more individuals
to form a social relationship.
In communal lands, there are social structures such as, the village development
committee (VIDCO) and the ward development committee (WARDCO).
VIDCO – Is made up of the chairman, secretary and treasurer. Their main duty is to
monitor and evaluate all development projects within their village such as water and
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sanitation and infrastructure development. The chairpersons passes villagers

concerns to the WARDCO and vice versa.
WARDCO is made up of seven to eight villages and the leadership will comprise all
the villages. Their mandate is to spearhead development projects in the village under
their jurisdiction through the VIDCO chairperson. The chairperson at WARDCO level
will forward developmental issues to the Councillor. The councillor in turn will take
the issues to the Rural District council. The rural district council will take it to the
District Administrator.
Social Structure
-It is a system of shared beliefs, interest and social relationships.
-It also covers phenomenon (known but not tangible.
Alterations of social structure (Social Change)
-It is a social structure emphasising on transitory and impersonal relationships.
(change in culture)
Culture
-A group of people that live together interact and share common ideas. There is a
pattern of which the above variables will focus on. This pattern or design for living in
a society is termed culture.
-Culture is the system of expectations thru beliefs opinions, understandings and
goals.
Cultured person
Is one who participates well in this design he must submit to shared perceptions and
feelings of that society.
What normally preserves culture?
These are the ethnic orientations of a social structure known as ethnocentrism.
It lessens traditional conflicts with rapid changes that would present problems of
social adjustments.
Such problems of change normally come as social, cultural, economic and
psychological.
Important elements of culture which affect change are: Norms, Values and Roles
1. Norms
- These are expectations widely shared by or within a society.
- Norms have to do with patterns of behaviour e.g. (every African man needs to
have a wife)
- Normal are generally regarded as useful but not essential for a society e.g.
(having to brush hair after bath)
- May take the form of conformity to informal laws of a society e.g. (keeping quiet
when one is taking meal.
2. Values
-Are goals which are widely shared within a society.
-Values have to do with what society wants/desire and this must be something
important to the society.
-Have to be manifested widely in the society.
-Need to be persistent in time and in generation.
-Should be felt very deeply in the society e.g. democracy, high income, spun of
cattle.
-Values can also be viewed as traditional antiquits and artifacts.
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Traditional antiquits- Something which is historic and monumental to the society

e.g.
(In a Shona society lobola should be sealed off with a cow for the mother of the
bride).
Artefact - A kind of a drawing which is very preservative of that society e.g. (Drawing
of Bushmen)
Society structure is a system of normal and values and their interrelationships.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Social organisation Culture
Social relationships
Norms and values
Society interaction
Expectations
3. Roles and Self-Image

A role – is a system of norms and values that provide the script (rule) for a member
of a given social category.
Social category – A classification which groups individual members together on the
basis of certain criteria.
e.g. (rich, widows, poor, educated)
Such groupings bridge/join personalities and social structures.
Social categories breed stereo-types i.e. issues associated with somebody e.g. (A
girl for beauty)
Leadership
A process that involves other people and the influence of those people by the leader
to direct their behaviour at the accomplishment of set objectives.
Attributes of leadership
- It is within a group of people.
- Has to do with influence – i.e. convince the people to see own point of view
without force/coercion.
- Subordinates should feel that they are in a structure in which they have a
stake.
- Leadership is goal directed and implies that people should be focused on
achievement of set goals.
Types of leadership in community structure
1. Formal leaders
- These hold required positions of authority
- Can inherit leadership e.g. chiefs and others may be appointed by those in
higher authority.
Examples of formal leaders
1. Headman 2. Chiefs 3. Political leaders 4. Traditional 5. Cultural 6.
Administrators 7. Religious ministers
Use of such leaders in extension programmes is essential in;
- Passing information to others
- It is the starting point for extension
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- Language interpretation
- Implementation of programmes
- Allocation or collection of funds for essential functions e.g. field days.
2. Informal leaders
- Do not hold any position or occupy any office but they are highly respected
by the community because of their magnetic characteristics.
- Examples of informal leaders
1. Those with good judgement
2. Those with considerable farming experience and know weather patterns in
general.
3. Those who want and deserve recognition.
4. Those who want extension meetings more often than others
5. Those with average level of education
6. Those who can only be convinced by facts
7. Early adopters.
In a social system which must be influenced to change, two characteristics groups
exists.
a. Chronoplastics- people who can change their minds as demanded by the
situation or those flexible with time.
b. Chronosets- people with relatively set minds who do not want to change.
They are viewed as extremists/conservationists/fundamentalists.
Social system
It is a group of people living together interacting and sharing common ideas for their
good.
Social structure that exists in Zimbabwe are:
1. Family units
2. Races
3. Communities
4. Tribes and kinships
5. Organised groups which are permanent in nature e.g. religious groups, status
groups (rich/poor) temporary groups such as savings clubs.
Adoption of innovation in a social structure
An innovation
Is an idea, practise or product that is viewed as new by the users e.g. new varieties,
moisture conservation techniques.
Adoption process
It is a process through which an individual must go through from first hearing to the
final acceptance.
FIVE STAGES OF ADOPTION PROCESS
1. Awareness/knowledge
2. Interest/persuasion
3. Evaluation/decision
4. Trail/confirmation
5. Adoption
1. Awareness
At this stage little is known about innovation. The farmer gains some understanding
of its existence and functions.
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Meetings/lecturers are held to introduce and discuss the new idea.

People may go into small groups (friendships and family units) and thoroughly
discuss it, if contented this leads to the next stage.
2. Interest
The question often asked is how to do it?
The famer forms favourable and unfavourable opinions on the innovation.
The extension method to use is method demonstration in order to address the
question and vague opinions about it.
There is clarification on skills needed and compatibility with other programmes.
3. Evaluation
Farmer engages in activities or analysis which lead to the choice between adoption
and rejection.
Questions related to the following are raised:
- Feasibility
- Profitability
- Acceptability
- Divisibility
Extension method to use is group discussion
Natural and opinion leaders need to exercise their important roles in acceptance and
rejection of the ideas. They have a social influence to the majority.
4. Trial
The question outstanding has to do with results.
Extension method to use is result demonstration.
This should be simple and the results clearly observed
5. Adoption/Implementation
An element of comparison is observed. The farmer wants to know if he/she is in line
with those who have already adopted the idea.
Extension method to use is field days where the farmer meets with others who have
adopted the idea.
ADOPTION CAPACITY OF INNOVATION IN RURAL SOCIETY OR THE

DIFFUSION THEORY.
Early adopters Early majority Late majority Laggards
innovators 2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16%
1. Innovators 2.5%
These are quick acceptors and implementers. These help spread the new
idea.
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No local leaders as they fear to lose their dignity.
2. Early adopters 13.5%

Farmers who are more conscious of what is going on hence want to be
convinced to adopt new practices e.g. local leaders, wealthy people and
extroverts (influential people).
3. Early majority 34%
Consist of a population that would normally join with others.
They adopt before the average majority.
They take positive attitude to new ideas.
4. Late majority 34%

People who resist abandoning old ideas
Are normally the last people to accept new ideas.
5. Laggards 16%
These never accept or adopt new innovations (chronosets)
Tend to be suspicious of new ideas.
Are bound by tradition and have low prosperity for participation.
Are associated with poor resources and poor education.
Factors which affect rate of adoption in the diffusion system.

1. Social system
2. Traditional norms
3. Morden norms
4. Technical norms
1. Social system
This suggests the image of self-perception of oneself. Any attempt to escape that
image could be met with resistance, mockery or ostracised/outcast.
2. Traditional norms
Conservatism
High dependency on powerful members of the community. Suspicion on strangers
and a tendency to want to exploit government agencies
3. Modern norms
More recognition that institutions outside the social system can be helpful.
Economic activities which are increasingly becoming disentangled from norms of
religion and customs.
4. Technical characteristics of innovations
a. Relative advantage
The degree to which an innovation is recognised as better that the idea that it is
supposed to replace.
This is usually expressed in terms of economic gains.
Subsistence may consider occurrence of risk as more important.
b. Compatibility
This is the extent to which the farmers value management whether innovation in
line with management objectives and level of technology – whether the
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innovation require high technology and know-how. He may accept or reject the
innovation.
c. Complexity
Degree to which an innovation is seen to be difficult or easy.
If it is difficult it is likely to be rejected.
d. Triability
Degree to which an innovation can be tried on a small scale without large
amounts of resources.
e.g. small quantities of new chemical or seed.
e. Observability
The degree to which an innovation is readily available with minimum efforts
and should be local and affordable.
f. Accessibility
The degree to which an innovation is readily available with minimum efforts
and should be local and affordable.
Extension methods in common use

1. Individual
2. Mass media
3. Demonstrations
4. Agricultural shows and field days
Methods – are viewed as means by which extension is effected in target population

OR the communication technique that enables the farmer to get and adopt
necessary innovations.
1. Individual method
It is the face to face interaction of the agent and the farmer where the farmer
receives individual attention of the extension agent.
-This is mutual discussion, sometimes referred to as dialogue or a one-on-one
discussion. These are conversations, which involve any two people. The can be face
to face or by use of telephone.
-There may be a formal appointment or may be informal on and when the
opportunity presents itself.
-The setting may vary e.g. farmer’s field, home, extension worker‘s home, local
market, as well as at social gatherings
e.g. 1. Farm and home visits
2. Office calls personal letters telephone calls
Advantages of individual methods

1. There is effective communication (element of feedback)
2. Free atmosphere between the agent and the farmer (openness)
3. High trust between agent and farmer (ethical consideration)
4. Is situation specific and adequately meets needs of the farmer.
5. Supply in for required for solving a unique problem e.g. a major investment
decision.
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6. The extension agents gets the opportunity to get to know this person very well
e.g. his feelings, capabilities, situation, e.t.c. a closer relationship is formed and
trust developed
7. Meetings can be scheduled outside of the normal working situations. This would
be useful for farmers who have other activities and are unable to attend regular
meetings or training sessions or woman whose chores within the household
8. This allows for more efficient use of time to the farmer as the focus is on their
individual situations.
9. It is possible to integrate information from the farmer (e.g. goals and means) with
information from the extension agent (e.g. causes of problems and research
findings and possible
Disadvantages of individual extension methods

1. Time consuming- A small proportion of the target group can be reached. (With a
good transport system the extension worker cannot visit more than 200 farmers
regularly)
2. Costly in terms of staff time and travel.
3. Open to bias – There is tendency to visit progressive farmers. Extension agents
can give incorrect information e.g. if they are not prepared to admit that they do
not have the necessary information or if they follow their personal whims.
4. There should be high level of trust or the farmer may not seek help nor disclose
confidential information and themselves if trust is lacking.
5. There is no farmer –to-farmer interaction during visits. Farmers may not realise
that they share same problems with their neighbours. This method may not be a
solution for the promotion of the collective interests such as in starting a co-
operative
Techniques in Individual Extension Methods.

i. Counselling Model -The extension agent should:
Not be judgemental. He/ she should be an active listener, repeating back to the
farmer what he has been told and asking for clarification of statements to ensure that
he clearly understands the issues at hand.
Non-verbal body signals are very important and will be picked up by the farmer .The
signals include facial expressions, posture, and tone of voice all of which have a
bearing on the impression created. Non-verbal signals are two ways and therefore
the extension agent can also obtain some feedback regarding farmer response and
general attitude.
ii. Diagnosis –Prescription Model – (is commonly used by medical doctors to

ascertain diseases and their causes).
The extension agent will ask a series of questions and the advice/
Solution given will be dependent on the answers received in response to the
questions.
It may be in form of an interview and may not allow for much input from the farmer
into the process of solving the problem.
It is based on the assumption that the extension agent has answers or solutions to
all the farmers’ problems.
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This may be a problem because the extension agent may not be as knowledgeable
as the farmers this model typically negatively influence the credibility of extension
agents.
iii. Participation Model – encourages the farmer to initiate the discussion topics.
-extension worker guides the farmer into finding a possible solution to the problem
being encountered.
The extension agent asks questions, which stimulate the farmer, to think and offers a
choice of suggestions of how to deal with the issues raised.
The farmer should be made to feel that all the decisions reached include much input
from him.
This method teaches the farmer the process of thinking out his/her problems until
he/she reaches a confident decision as an individual.
This model requires specific skills on the part of the extension agent.
If not used well it can leave the farmer with a feeling of dissatisfaction since the
extension agent take a subdued role.
Group Extension method

The first group unit is the family followed by the cooperation for specific purpose. e.g.
meetings on demonstrations, lecture meetings, leader training meetings,
conferences, tours and discussion meetings.
This involves manageable groups of farmers who may undertake a training session.
-It can be in the form of talk /speech; group discussion; demonstrations/field days;
excursion; role playing; agricultural shows; e.t.c.
-This method reaches fewer numbers compared with the mass media, but offer the
chance of receiving feedback in the form of questions being asked.
-The method chosen is determined by the message to be communicated. e.g. to
show the use of machinery used in harvesting and demonstration is more
appropriate than speech. The farmers will see and appreciate the advantages or
otherwise of the new techniques and methods. Discussions are important in decision
making, while speeches are advantageous in transferring information.
There should be some form of control otherwise farmers may divert to issues not
relevant to the issues at hand. (Are the questions relevant to the speech that has
been given)?
Groups can be classified according to size Large, Small and Medium.

a. Large groups – Religious denominations, political parties
b. Medium – Farmers clubs, video, workers committees
c. Small groups – Family units and friendships parties
Groups can also be classified as – Primary/Informal and Secondary/Formal
a. PRIMARY/ INFORMAL
- Serve as a means of solving common problems e.g. weeding
- Save a communication device for information and attitudes e.g. gossip among
members
- To fulfil man’s natural desire for social security e.g. friendships groups
- Act as an outlet for frustration that individual have by people share complains
about their bosses.
NB A primary group is formed naturally.
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b. SECONDARY GROUP/ FORMAL

- Serve as a communication channel for individual opinion
- Serve as a source of new information and experience by individual members
e.g. Master Farmers Clubs
- To fulfil an economic security e.g. Savings Club
Characteristics of formal and informal groups

Primary/Informal Secondary/Formal
1. Group discussions of personally 1. Group discussions and goal
centred oriented
2. Informality-No office bearers and
sometimes no name and meeting 2. Formally prevails – groups have
place name, office bearers and
3. Permanency – Members and meeting place
together for over a long time. 3. Temporary – members have little
4. Personal relationship among time together
members. 4. Impersonal relationship among
5. Normally small 5-20 people members.
6. Face to face communication 5. Large in size e.g. political party.
7. Members and well acquainted to 6. Little face to face communication
each other 7. Not acquainted with each other
and less group pressure
Advantages of group methods

1. Discussion made by groups carries more conviction and weight than that of the
individual.
2. A group provide view and express the need of the majority
3. Technical ideas reach more people per given time. Given the highest ratio of
extension agents to farmers group methods are more efficient in coverage than
individual methods. (Use of opinion leaders and farmer trainers in conducting
group sessions with farmers may improve the spread of extension
recommendation.)
4. Knowledge and experience are shared by a group e.g. individual skills,
knowledge and experience among members etc.
5. Language used is more familiar to participants
6. Participants have chances to ask questions and present opposing ideas
7. Participants will be more interested generally because they will exert influence on
the choice of problems to be discussed. –
8. There will also be an exchange of beneficial or useful experiences between
farmers. e.g. with demonstrations some innovative farmers may share simple
ways of say water harvesting than the complicated method being demonstrated
by the extension worker and he will learn too.
9. Field days afford the farmers the chance to observe methods that may have been
talked in practise, for they can observe the practical benefits. Excursions, field
visits expose farmers to what is happening beyond their farms or village.
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Disadvantages of group methods

The effective use of groups should bear the following in mind:
1. Groups are too often situation specific- The issue being discussed may not be
pertinent and relevant to some of the farmers e.g. discussions centred on
problems of livestock production will be relevant to those farmers with
livestock, and whose animals are affected by those specific problems.
2. Communication may not be effective depending in the size of the group

3. It may not be easy to evaluate the group method for progress purpose
4. It takes a lot of effort and time to persuade group members
5. The issue being discussed may not be pertinent and relevant to some of the
farmers e.g. discussions centred on problems of livestock production will be
relevant to those farmers with livestock, and whose animals are affected by
those specific problems.
6. Time available is limited at each session whereas most farmers are elderly
therefore tend to have limited attention less detail is covered.
7. Adult audience prefer participatory method of communication. With large
groups, members have less time for specific contributions. The agent may
report to lecturing method hence less feedback. Lecturing leads to high
attention spans or even boredom therefore quickly forgets.
8. -Group sizes may limit the slope for group member’s participation in practical
demonstrations. Demonstrations are useful cause some information may not
be well presented verbally only e.g. mastering of psychomotor skills.
9. -Audience interaction and feedback is affected by group size. In developing
countries field extension staff have large and varied members of farmers to
service.
10. -Establishment of rapport between the extension agent and farmer groups is
important.
11. -Visiting extension workers may not be accepted especially if the information
or demonstration technique is not fitting with the recommending and concept
promoted by the local field staff.
12. -Understanding of group dynamics of the farmer groups and respective
communities is necessary if he extension worker is to establish
communication with the farmer.
2. MASS MEDIA METHOD

Is a non-formal method of bringing education to the mass target population.
Types of mass media
i. Print media (newspapers, magazines, Bulletins, Pamphlets, Leaflets etc)
ii. Audio-visual media (radio, T.V, audio and videocassettes)
iii. Electronic e.g. internet
iv. Telephonic
v. Folk media (theatre plays songs puppet shows story tellers etc)
Radios and TVs are quite effective in creating awareness as of innovation.

1. Print media
-Are communication techniques that make use of printed words or pictures? It covers
newspapers, magazines pamphlets leaflets and posters.
-Printed material has cost advantages over electronic media
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-Messages can be kept for future reference.
Selection of print media depends on:

-Importance and type of message to be conveyed e.g. to introduce a new maize
hybrid variety, a poster announcing the advantages of this new seed, may create
enough interest for farmers to approach the extension worker for more detail. The
worker would then provide a fact sheet with more information like listing all the
attributes of this new seed.
-The education and literacy levels of the audience must be considered e.g. there is
use in producing a monthly newspaper for a group of farmers that are barely able to
read the local language. Literacy problems may reduce print media to diagrams and
pictures.
N.B. Literate children may read to their parents.
a. Newspapers
Advantages
-Can be misleading for unsophisticated audiences.
-Useful for relating major events, which would affect agricultural activities at the local,
level. e.g. announcement of events like pests invasion can be transmitted quickly
through the media.
-Articles of interest can be compiled by field extension staff and inserted into daily
newspapers, which can be used to communicate to farmers. -Can be used to
reinforce the importance of certain practices e.g. newspaper lecture detailing the
need for destruction of cotton stalks for control pink ball worm could be used to
reinforce the importance for pest control procedures for cotton production.
Disadvantages
-Are common in urban settings but maybe low in some rural areas.
-They typically focus on major national and international, social and political events
because rural issues together with agriculture are irrelevant or supplementary to the
interests of core newspaper
Customers.
-Newspapers are available for a change which may be prohibitive or unjustified for
most rural residents.
b. Magazines and printed materials

(E.g. posters, leaflets, pamphlets)
Advantages
-Maybe free therefore overcoming the cost to the poor rural audience.
-The pamphlet maybe handled out at extension meetings or put in public buildings
like the post office or the local shop therefore improving accessibility.
-Maybe used by agricultural extension workers to reinforce an issue after a meeting
e.g. in the form of a regular newsletter that summarises issues raised at the last
meeting so that the contact farmers may then refer to the information at a later date
should need arise.
-Can carry specialised information especially targeted at commercially oriented
producers. In Zimbabwe an example is The Farmer, a monthly magazine.
-If the cost is prohibitive the extension organisation may order subscriptions for their
field officers who can then make the information available to the farmers.
Disadvantages
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-The message may not reach the targeted farmers. This is because it is very likely a
number of people will pick up the leaflet, as it is free, but will not necessarily read it.
-The cost of purchasing maybe prohibitive.
2. Audio-visual media
(i) (Television)
Advantages
-Transmit both voice and visual imagery.
-Recipients see an enactment of the message being transmitted.
- (Murimi wanhasi) is a known programme, which discusses relevant issues.
-Psychomotor skills can be conveyed e.g. a demonstration on how to calibrate a
planter.
-Reality can be relevant to that of the targeted group e.g. a programme indicating the
appropriate ways of dehorning cattle being acted by local farmers is likely to be more
convincing to similar type audiences.
-If live there can be a phone in for the people.
Disadvantages
-Few rural people have television sets/their maybe no electricity or Car batteries can
provide power). May have community based TV sets etc.
-Programmes may not be timed to coincide with the availability of the farmers
especially when it has been produced elsewhere. May use video recording
equipment to record important programmes then utilised by farmer groups using
community equipment. It may link TV sets via satellite or land based relay stations
for immediate transmission.
-High cost of production of TV programmes limits their use. Agritex in Zimbabwe
introduced a Mobile Training Unit, which employs the use of audio visual aids for
farmer training. Material production is decentralised and requires staff from all over
the country to have access to the equipment. However this MTU makes few visit
stop the farmers therefore reduced efficiency.
-Poor and not visible conditions where the aids were shown reduced their
usefulness.
-Most Agricultural extension providers do not afford the specialised equipment and
expertise required.
-Agricultural extension programmes maybe sponsored by large private companies
with their individual agenda. Such programs have an element of bias; a sponsor
typically has a marketing angle to the message.
-However extension workers need to intervene to reduce such biases and they can
potentially mislead a guidance or even distance knowledge an idea, practise or
object.
-Sponsored TV programmes may be biased because the sponsor have their interest
e.g. a marketing angle to a message.
(ii). Radio
-One of the least expensive and widespread methods of mass dissemination of
information.
-In Zimbabwe we have radio programmes dedicated to Agriculture and they use local
languages to overcome literate barrier.
-Can be used to reinforce the convictions of farmers regarding new technologies e.g.
a farmer considering purchasing a new type of plough maybe persuaded by the
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manufacturer’s advertisements on the radio of the plough’s benefits that it is a

worthwhile investment.
-Gets the information to the field extension workers, this improves the operational
efficiency as it reduces the cost of alternative communication channels like trips to
and from the organisation’s headquarters.
Disadvantages
-Poor feedback in most programmes.
-not flexible, i.e. limited in time for message transmission.
-the level of detail that can be carried within the specific programme messages
-messages maybe removed from the experiences of the rural people being produced
and focused for urbanites
N.B. With both tele-vision and radios scheduling of programmes is very important.
3. Electronic media
Internet
-can be a group or individual extension method.
Advantages
-Research organisations may have pages that release the latest research findings
and
-E-mail addresses that may be used for asking questions.
-No waiting for messages is necessary.
Disadvantages
Use of e-mail and internet relies heavily on the telephone system and the two go
hand-in-hand. Therefore an efficient telephone system is critical.
4. Telephonic media
Mobile phones and land lines
Advantages
-it is a two way communication and response is immediate.
-can be an individual method of extension if not using conference-calling facility.
-variation in pitch of a person’s voice help farmers and extension workers to pick up
additional clues.
-connections are very fast.
-questions for which there are no immediate answers during discussions or
demonstrations can be followed up by telephone when the extension worker has
returned to the office. Also when time limits the discussion, individuals with particular
interest (who are commonly the more progressive farmers) can follow up with
telephone calls to the extension agents.
-the reliability of the local telephone network may also come into play.
The advert of cellular telephone technology may see a triangle in the use of the
telephone.
The role of Mass Media in Agricultural Extension

-Plays a role in the opinion making process e.g. a farmer who has no interest in the
use of water harvesting techniques maybe made aware of some of the benefits of
water conservation methods. This may raise his interest and begin to think more
deeply the issue and eventually form an opinion.
-It is usually possible to reach a wider audience.
-Aids capture audience attention
-Can be fast e.g. radio to announce the coming of locusts.
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Limitations of Mass Media

1. Direct and local immediate feedback from the audience to the teacher is
impossible.
2. Active involvement of the audience in the teaching process is impossible.
3. The specific local need cannot be given adequate attention base of the cultural
gap e.g. language and dialect between the speakers and audience.
Principles of Mass Media

1. Language use – must be clear.
2. The message – must be sufficient to arouse interest.
3. Objectives must be Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant Timeliness
(SMART).
4. Presentation must be direct – should bear in mind social and cultural background.
5. Choose the correct time in relation to the subject.
6. Information must not conflict with policies at that level.
7. Careful planning is necessary in prep, presentation and application.
COMMONLY USED EXTENSION METHODS

1. Farm visits
Mainly used with opinion leaders for support. Made to asses farm viability, collect
information/census, gain knowledge of certain practices which can be used to help
other farmers.
Making an effective farm visit
a. Before the visit
- Decide on objective.
- Make an opportunity with the farmers.
- Gather the necessary information and equipment.
b. Making the visits
- Keep the exact time of appointment.
- Greet the farmers on entering homesteads and accept hospitality offered.
- Encourage farmers to discuss their problems.
- Observe conditions and activities of the farm.
- Discuss observations of farm activities and complement the farmer for his
success /effort
c. Follow up
- Make notes on visitation record.
- Fulfil promises made to build and maintain trust. You should; therefore, never
make promises you know you cannot fulfil just to please the farmer.
- Respect the farmer’s privacy.
2. Method demonstration
Done to show farmers how a techniques or task is done. E.g. how to use tools like
use of tiliter clipper when harvesting tobacco, mushroom production, using centre
pivot etc.
a. Before demonstration
- Identify the problem to be solved.
- Farmers should be involved in problem identification.
- Identify skills to be taught.
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- Gather information and equipment to use. Break up the information into

manageable units.
- Locate the demonstration at a convenient place.
- Check that you have all required materials and test equipment.
b. During demonstration
 Position trainees so that they can all see the demo and hear your explanation.
 Explain the objective and importance of the task.
When carrying out a silent demo. Tell the trainees when starting and finished the
demo.
Demo with key points – should be stopped to emphasise each key point by giving
the reason and by showing what is meant
Demonstration with full explanation (make sure the trainees can follow the
explanation and repeat, if necessary.)
 Trainee explains (the demonstrator performs the job to the instruction of the
trainee.) It is important for the demonstrator to:
Avoid anticipating the trainee’s instructions.
Correct the trainee if the instructions are wrong and,
Never carry out wrong instructions
 Trainee demonstrates: (watch carefully to ensure that to ensure that the method
is exactly right and corrections made as soon as possible.) The trainee must
explain what he is going to do before he does it.
• Final demonstration (check that the trainees know the reasons why key points
must be implemented to ensure that the task is correctly accomplished.
• Supervising practice: A good trainer will carry out the role of supervising
practise as follows:
-He will be mobile, allotting time to each trainee, watching for his or her difficulties
and giving encouragement where necessary.
-His supervision will follow a pattern so that no trainee is neglected. This will
overcome the tendency to spent too long with either very weak or the more
advanced trainees.
-He should make note of the difficulties encountered by the trainees with a view to
modifying future practical sessions in order to overcome these difficulties.
-He should never leave trainees for a long period, always being available to correct
and answer questions when necessary.
c. Follow up
- Note strategies and weakness so as to improve in future.
- Visit the farmers who indicated an interest in the demonstration task.
3. Results Demonstrations
To convince farmers that a particular technique is possible under local conditions.
e.g. to show superiority of hybrid over a local variety.
a. Before the demonstration
-Identify the problem to be solved by the demonstration.
-Decide upon the objectives to be accomplished.
-Gather complete information about the proposed practice.
-Involve the farmers in planning and carrying out the demonstration and let them
identify possible hosts.
-Develop a full plan of showing clearly all delegated responsibilities
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b. During the demonstration

- Make use of the company leaders to help you encourage to attend the start of the
demonstration
- Visit the demonstration site oftenly.
- Use the site for meetings and tours; let the host farm the process.
- Record every activity and so as to have data comparison at the end.
c. After the demonstration
- Evaluate the process and results of demo.
- Provide follow up training to interested farmers.
- Keep all records as they may be useful in future.
- Do a cost-benefit analysis and present it to farmers.
4. Competitions and field days

A competition is used to generate increased interest in advice by the extension
agent
How to run a competition
- Identify objectives and competition funding with farmers.
- Describe on the competition enterprises.
- Formulate the judgement criteria.
- Agree with farmers on neutral judges and dates.
NB Competition normally leads to a field day.
A Field day – is an event organised for a group of farmers to show improved

production techniques used on other farms, demo plots, research stations
A field day is an event organised for a group of farmers to show them improved
production techniques being used on one or more farms, demonstration plots or
research stations. Field days can be held on the farms of the winners of
competitions.
During a field day, a combination of extension methods is used, for example

group discussion, result and method demonstrations.
Field day preparations
- Identify objectives of the field day together with the farmers.
- Select site or venue for the field day. This can be at the farm of the winner or the
competition or at the demonstration plot
- Involve the area leaders when deciding on the date and guests to be invited.
- Publicise the field day site e.g. using sign posts.
- If possible arrange exhibition and provide items like hand-outs which can be
taken away by those attending.
- Prepare the field day programme
Holding the field day
- Extension agents and organisers should be at the venue early to see to it that
everything is well planned.
- Welcome farmers and visitors as they come and distribute programme describing
the field day.
- Introduce speakers and guests and the host farmer.
- Take the visitors and farmers around the let the host farmer explain the practices
being demonstrated.
- Emphasise the main points to be noted.
- Allow visitors and farmers to ask questions and their own feelings.
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- Give vote of thanks follow local customs

Follow up
- Call local leaders and organisers
-Call the field day leaders/organisers and evaluate the success or failure. The
evaluation will guide future field days.
-Other methods, for example farm visits, can be used to help those farmers showing
interest in practicing the skill.
5. Lesson method
(A lesson is talk by a single speaker to a group of farmers. It may include other
activities like questioning, small group discussions and demonstrations.)
It is ideal when:
-Imparting knowledge,
-The material to be given is simple and straight forward and,
-Introducing another method for example, demonstration.
Hints on planning and presenting a lesson
(a) Preparation
- Identify the target farmers-educational levels, values and beliefs, etc.
- Select the objective(s).
- Gather and select information that will lead to the achievement of the objective(s).
- Decide the learning steps-clearly and logically organise the steps.
- Prepare learning materials, for example training aids and case studies.
(b) Presentation
(1) Introduction:
-Arouse interest.
-Show the importance of the subject to the farmers
-State the objectives of the lesson.
-Indicate the range of topics to be covered.
-Link or tie in the new subject to the previous subjects or to what farmers already
know.
(2) Main body
• Present one idea at a time.
• Present supporting material.
• Question to check understanding and allow farmers to ask questions also
(3) Summary
- Restate the objective or purpose.
- Restate the main points.
- Do not bring in any new ideas at this stage.
- Evaluate by questioning, through exercise or discussions.
- Thank the farmers for their efforts.
6. Meetings/discussions
(a) Extension meeting
This is a method used in extension to:
- Spread ideas,
- Obtain farmers’ feelings and opinions on extension programmes and,
- Gain their support on local problems and extension programmes.
Guide lines for planning and conducting a meeting.

(a) Decide on the purpose of the meeting.
- This helps the extension agent to decide on the subject matter for the meeting.
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- Review information on the subject matter.

(b) Decide on the size/nature of the meeting.
- Is it going to a large or small, formal or informal meeting?
(c) Plan.
• Chose a date and time convenient to the farmers.
• Chose a place that is easy to get to, comfortable and appropriate for the
subject.
• Arrangements to be made:
- Meeting place.
- Parking.
- Publicity, for example, signposts, subject for the meeting, where, when, and why,
speakers’ name(s) (if appropriate).
- Seating-VIPs, audience must see and hear and must be comfortable.
- Speakers and chairperson-select them, invite them, transport them (if necessary).
- Reception and introductions.
- Food and drinks.
- Public address.
- Sanitation (toilets).
- Training aids.
- Handouts.
Note: Involve farmers in all arrangements and preparations.
Holding a meeting
- Start the meeting on time and with a challenge.
- Thank host.
- State purpose and agenda.
- Start the programme.
- Present ideas in a logical sequence with ample opportunity for questions and
answers.
- Summarise important points.
- Note important decision(s).
- Distribute extension literature.
- Close the meeting: thank host, speakers, guests and audience.
Follow-up
- Clean up the meeting place.
- Write letter of thanks to speakers and hosts
- Record decisions and keep promises made and take prompt action.
- Publicise decisions taken and views expressed.
b) Discussion
This is a dialogue among group members that helps to solve problems and to
change attitudes and, to some extent personalities.
Hints on holding an effective discussion
(a) Preparation and planning for the discussion
•Identify the real problem to be solved.
•Obtain the necessary facts and opinions about the problem.
•Set objectives for the discussion.
•Establish the range of topics to be covered.
•Decide on the participants.
•Decide on the possible `action’ you would like from the farmers.
•Inform participants of the problem and agenda, venue and time to start.
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•Check on the physical arrangements.

(b) Holding the discussion.
Introduction
Relate the problem to be discussed.
Establish relevant facts and opinions.
State the specific objective of the discussions.
Leading the discussion
Draw on the special experience of individuals.
Ensure that the discussion is shared fairly among all participants.
Explore reasons for disagreement among members.
Ensure contributions are clear to all members.
Keep discussions on track.
Regularly sum up and evaluate progress made.
Do not allow people to go over old ground that has already been
agreed on.
Evaluate the suggested possible solutions.
Gain agreement on the best possible solution(s).
Record decisions made.
Make arrangements for putting the decision(s) into action.
(c) Follow-up
Follow-up to determine progress on the action plants.
Correct mistakes or call for another discussion, if need be.
7. Agricultural show
It is a major event that takes place once every year and the main things, which
take place at a show, are:
•High quality products of farmers are exhibited and prices given.
•Agricultural implements and equipment are demonstrated; and
•Agriculture development institutions for example, the extension service, co-
operatives and marketing organisations set up information stands.
(a) Purpose of Agriculture shows:
•Provide an opportunity for farmers to select materials, that is crops livestock, etc
suitable for their areas,
•Enable farmers to see what other farmers can do or are doing,
•Help extension agents to gain support for extension programmes and,
•Enable extension agents and community leaders to select representatives to district,
provincial and national shows
(b) Planning and preparing for an agricultural show.
Make farmers feel that the show is theirs by:
•Involving the farmers in choosing the show committee, a convenient venue and a
convenient date.
•Helping the committee members to define their roles and to produce the show
programme.
•Involving the show committee in the selection of appropriate exhibits and amounts
for subscription.
-Distribute the show programme to all farmers exhibiting, judges and to other
agencies working within the area for example, Z.F.C, National Foods, etc.
-Advise the show secretary on how to write invitation letters to judges.
-Let the show treasurer keep all subscriptions and donations.
-Allow farmers to plan what to buy for prizes and how to distribute them.
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(c) Holding the agricultural show

-A week before the agricultural show:
-Prepare the show site and ensure security of exhibits.
-Plan the arrangements of the exhibits.
-Assemble well-labelled exhibits as planned.
-During the agriculture show
-Explain the exhibits and answer questions concerning the exhibits.
-Introduce the judges to the committee and let the committee direct them to judging
sections.
-Provide the judges with judging materials and give them enough time to judge.
-Open the show after the judges have finished.
-Allow the judges to present their comments.
-Allow time for speeches from invited dignitaries.
-Present the prizes.
-Give vote of thanks according to local custom
Note: Where possible, school choirs and women’s clubs can provide entertainment
at intervals.
(d) Follow-up pursue requests from interested farmers by making personal
visits.
(e) Evaluation Use the judges’ and exhibitors’ comments to improve future
shows.
8. Look and learn tours/ field trips

This involves taking a group of farmers to another area to observe agricultural
practices, projects and demonstration not available locally.
(a) Purpose
•To provide fist-hand observation of practices of benefit to the farmers.
•To enable farmers to interact with individuals knowledgeable about the practices.
•To present a fresh and different learning environment for both the extension agent
and the farmers.
(b) Planning the trip
 Identify the group to go on tour.
•What is their level of knowledge, skills and attitudes?
•What are the new skills, knowledge and to be acquired by the farmers.
•What is the language to be used to facilitate good communication?
•Consider the resources used at demonstrations to be visited .Do farers have the
resources or are such resources readily available?
Identify the objective of the trip
Work out the schedule (with local leaders), that is the timetable; who will go on the
trip, assign tasks. Consider food, drinks and transport. Consider local leaders to
determine:
•Things to be seen,
•Timing,
•Farmers to be visited and,
•People to be invited.
Inform hosts about:
•The background of the visitors in terms of their farming activities,
•The purpose of the visit,
•Time of arrival and,
•the number of visitors.
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-Rehearse the tour to check timing and arrangements.

(c) During the trip,
•Keep the group moving to maintain interest and,
•Do make the day too long and tiring,
(d) After the visit,
•Thank the host,
•Fulfil any promises made,
•Discuss issues which arose during the visit,
•Give feedback of discussions to host farmer(s) and,
•Follow up on identified interested farmers.
NB. Most of our farmers are illiterate, therefore individualised and group methods
particularly on-farm demonstrations are the most appropriate and useful methods to
use in disseminating new technology. Most farmers want to see the results of a new
variety or input used under conditions to their own.
PROGRAMME PLANNING
The programme:-Is a statement of: situation, objectives, problems and solutions.
Planning:- Can be defined as a formal process by which specific objectives are set
and detailed ways of achieving them are established Extension programme planning
involves developing the program and coming up with a plan of work.
In extension programme planning, the following questions should be answered
 Why is a programme needed?
 What are the needs to be met in the situation?
 Who is affected and involved?
 What are the objectives of a programme?
 What resources (physical or human) are available for carrying out the
programme?
 When can the various events / tasks involved in the programme be held / done?
 Where should each event / task be held or carried out?
 How the programme is to be evaluated?
 What factors can be demonstrated towards the achievements of specified
objectives?
 To what extent have the objectives been met?
Why is extension programme planning necessary?

 To guide us in our work.
 To provide a benchmark or guide for judging new proposals.
 To decide on priorities, that is areas to focus the direction and intensity of efforts
based on the needs and. interests of the people.
 To ensure careful consideration of what we want to do and why we want to do it
 To co-ordinate the efforts of various agencies and personnel.
 To help justify expenditure by government and to support decisions regarding
allocation of funds.
 To provide continuity of efforts and results in personnel.
 To organise work so that time, money and capabilities are used most effectively.
Documenting the plan/ programme development.

-It should be a continuing and repetitive process
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-Most models are based on a cycle involving a sequence of steps carried out with
participating individuals and group
The Programme Planning Cycle
5. Plan of work
4. Objectives
Objectives
Evaluation 6. Implementation
3. Possible solutions Farmer involvement at

every stage in the cycle
2. Problem 7. Evaluation and

identification Evaluation reconsideration
1. Situation determination or 1.
1. Situation analysis diagnostic field survey and
The agent analyses the farmer’s analysis
situation by trying to identify the need, gap or
condition that exists between what is and what should be or between what is and
what is more desirable.
– Situation analysis tool allows a systematic analysis of factors contributing to the
marginalisation as well as a means to strategise for change.
(i) Informal field diagnosis covering the steps situation determination analysis,
problem identification and possible solutions
(ii) This is aimed at understanding the circumstances in which farmers are
operating identifying problems and their caused coming up with reliable
solutions
2. Problem Identification.
What is a problem?
Generally a problem is described as any constraint in anything for which a solution
could be found. A problem in agricultural production means law and inefficient
productivity from the resources given. Generally problems of a technical nature
concerns the agriculture extension agent.
Kinds of Problems in Extension.
a) Technical b) Non-technical
a) Technical Problems.
-Limiting factors (e.g. nutrients and problems)
-Plant population, e.g. (too low or too high can be a problem)
-Management practices e.g. which damage the crop e.g. root damage from weeding,
early harvest etc
-Variety (use of wrong variety for a wrong region or locality)
-Inefficient use of input (e.g. –fertilizer and chemicals, misuse of irrigation water,
inappropriate products)
-Underutilisation of land or labour e.g. lack of intercropping ideal land.
-Low value of crop or animal-through improper marketing.
b) Non-Technical Problems.
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-Institutional problems inadequacies E.G

-poorly developed markets
- low crop prices
-lack of extension
-lack of credit.
N.B. Some of these problems e.g. schools, dams, etc are not direct problems for
extension agents because he/she is concerned about agricultural extension advisory
services. However he/she might bias with other ministries/departments so that the
problem e.g. of poor roads is solved.
Procedure of problem diagnosis
1. Listing Problems-as you identify problems list them down in a table as
below;
Problem Effect Evidence Additional evidence
available required
-nitrogen -yellowing of -observed in -establish rate of fertilizer
deficiency in leaves the field applied
maize leading to -stunted -told by the -establish use of stover
low yields maize farmers -check if soils are water
growth logged.
low yields
-low income
Listing causes of problems

Problem cause Evidence Additional evidence required
s available
Causes of problems -a cause is a reason for something to happen or exist

therefore if removed the problem also disappears. Adequate identification to causes
of a problem is important step to identifying appropriate solutions. Set enough
information to come out with the causes. Look for: -Circumstances - farmer
practices - resource limitations
Types of causal linkages
(i) One cause diagrams-is when a problem has one cause poor seed quality-low
plant population leading to low yields
(ii) Multiple causes-more than one cause to a problem.
-if two causes act together, the linkage arrow can be joined.
-if there is an uncertainty about the cause has a question mark. (?)
High loses in maize crop yield from lodging variety used is very tall &windstorm late
in seasons
Soil compaction limiting root growth & poor land preparation
N.B If later the relationship is not seen to be important the branch should be
removed e.g. with the question mark above.
(iii) Problems as causes-two or more problems can be related.-Nitrogen fertilizers
applied late and in low amounts poor growth in maize due to nitrogen deficiency
leading to loss of yield. Weed competition in maize to leading sharing of nutrients
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Limits in identifying causes

a) Number of causes–do not include wild guesses or extend the chain to the
extremes. Limit the chain to a cause, which help you consider possible solutions to
the problem.
b) Problems which do not require causes to be listed – e.g. crop damage by locusts,
if there is no management factors or circumstances which enhance the insect attack
then there is no need to diagram any cause. Just deal with the problem, e.g. here kill
the locusts as they come.
c) “Non practices as causes” continuous cropping- nitrogen deficiency & no fertilizer
is applied
Ranking Problems (Prioritisation)
-Only a few farmers problems may need demonstration or research trials to be
investigated therefore problems need to be prioritised they may not be all
investigated at once.
-You can prioritise problems according to:
a) Intensity of problem e.g. how serious it is.
b) Distribution of the problem, how many fields or farmers are affected.
c) Relative importance of the enterprise affected in relation to other enterprises
Ranking of Problems
Problem Distribution of Importance of Intensity of Relative importance
problem crop enterprises problem
Less than 75% of samples =3
51-75% of samples = 2
26-50 % of sample = 1
0-25 % of sample = 0
To get the relative importance add up all the numbers. The problem with the highest
total became the most important problem and therefore ranked as first
3. Possible solutions to a problem

There can be one or more solutions to a problem.
E.g. Problem: Nitrogen deficiency in maize leading to low yields.

Cause Opportunity Possible Solution
i) low doses -there is a dealer selling fertilizer -apply 150 kg
of fertilizers in the area nitrogen/hectare
-government free packs are given -half at planting and half
to farmers. at 30 days after planting
-credit facilities are available
ii) Surface -labour easily available to apply -apply the fertilizer in the
application fertilizer hole at the side of the
and heavy plant.
rains.
iii) low -livestock feed is available - incorporate maize
organic - free ranging animals residues
matter in the - use chicken or kraal
soil manure
NB –Opportunities are not applicable to all areas, they may not apply in other area
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-Workability of solutions may depend on other constraints e.g. farmers may have to
purchase kraal manure if they have no cattle.
-Other circumstances and questions may have a bearing on solutions e.g. what
yields are farmers seeking
Evaluate your solutions -. Not all solutions suggested are easy to implement
therefore it is necessary to evaluate them for the following aspects:
- Ease of investigation.
- Ease of adoption
- Potential benefits
Scoring of evaluation of solutions
High = 3, medium = 2, low = 1, doubtful = 0
a. Ease of investigation- choose a solution which is:

-easy to investigate
-least cost in carrying out a research or demonstration
Probability that the technology will function in the local situation
-Researchers, extensionists and farmers must make judgement on whether the
proposed technology or solutions can be transferred to local condition .ask what
other effects the technology or solutions is likely to cause.
Ease to carry out an experimental programme

-The research programmes, experiments, or demonstrations should not be costly,
but if costly and offers the best possible solution then there would be no alternative.
b) Ease of adoption
-If the farmer find it difficult to adopt a technology or solution then it may not be the
best under the circumstances farmers are “risk avoiders” and any technology that
has same risk will be avoided, consider:
i. Compatibility with farming system-
E.g. suggesting incorporation of crop residues, including maize Stover into the soil
as a solution to N deficiency in maize. If the farmers use maize Stover in their cattle
feeding scheme the farmer may choose what appears to be reasonable to him
unless you convince him otherwise or another alternative feed is provided
ii. Divisibility- can the solution or technology be tried out, a little at a time. If it involves a
large investment of capital and use of new input or more inputs it is likely to be
avoided. Farmers especially in communal ones prefer to – their practices in steps.
iii. Institutional Support back up services e.g. from extension services, training support.
Some are however taken up readily any aid.
c) Potential Benefits-
Consider:
-Profitability rank potential solutions for potential benefits.
Stability. -is the technology stable, are farmers going to face big losses in certain
years.
Listing Technical Messages. –The agreed upon solutions should now be
developed into technical messages
Form designs to be used in
a) Evaluation of Solutions.
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PROBLEM
Cause Solution Ease of Potenti Ease of Benefit Decisio

investigation al adoption s n
How easy Is Profitability Ease of Compatibility Stability
is it to solution testing with farming (contrib
carry out suitable by system uting to
an for local farmers reducin
experimen condition . g risk
t
Scoring – refer to evaluation of solutions

b) Institutional Support. (Opportunities)
Solutio Credit Inputs Extensio Researc Market Roads Other
n n h
4. Programme Objectives
-These answers the question:
What results do we want after implementing the programme?
An objective is a communication tool which clarifies the direction of a performance,
facilitates the selection of appropriate learning activities, guide participants on what
to expect, and forms the basis for evaluating the programme.
A programme objective describes the outcome or results of the programme and
should have the following:
a) Performance- should describe the action to be performed
b) Condition-state the condition under which the action is to take place.
c) Time-state the time the activity will be completed or when to expect an outcome.
E.g. of an objective: by the end of the poultry course, 70% of the poultry farmers
in ward 24 will be able to cull low performing layers.
NB: Some programmes may originate from existing projects in the area, policy
directives e.g. AGRITEX donor agents may hire farmer groups, political promise
and natural disasters like outbreak of pests and diseases.
Components of an Extension Programme Objective
i. Target- i.e. the people to whom the activity is aimed.
ii. Content-subject of learning activity.
iii. Behavioural change (i.e. what the participants will be doing with the content.
This area has three broad categories;
 Cognitive change (knowing)-i.e. increase knowledge or understanding.
 Affective Change (feelings) –change in feelings, attitude and values.
 Psychomotor change (doing)- development of skills
Formulation of Programme Objectives.
Consider:
a) The people affected.
b) Available resources.
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c) The actual diagnosed problem and proposed solutions.
Levels of objectives-they are four levels i.e.:

a) Agency or policy-levels-these describe the overall objectives of the organisation
e.g. department position or position charters. To promote the adoption of
approved crop husbandry practises in maize production.
b) Programme level-specify the expected result of a programme e.g. what will be or
improved in economic, social, cultural or environmental situation and what
evidence will help identify the results e.g. programme proposal document and its
justification. To provide adequate levels in the production of maize –reduced
yields
c) Project level-focus on a certain subject matter and a group of participants. This
states what is to be accomplished or results by those involved e.g. project
proposal document and its justification .By the end of 2016 agricultural season
100 farmers should have been trained in the correct or application rates.
d) Institutional/activity level –relation to single activity from learners’ point of view.
They should be specific enough to guide the decisions that are made plus the
training and learning process, e.g. lesson and demonstration objectives to solve
actual identified problems. Farmers should be able to apply 25 tonnes manure
and 150kg ammonium nitrate per hectare the rate of half number 5 cupper plant
at four and eight weeks after planting.
NB Use action words in formulating objectives e.g. to promote, to provide, to
apply etc.
5. Work plans and calendars of work
Developing Programme plan of work
Developing Technical package programmes
Entering project activities on individual project forms
Extracting monthly activities from all project forms

Month by month
Producing a monthly itinerary
 Consider the following issues;

Work out your actual effective working days per annum.
From 365
subtract:
 Your 12 days annual leave throughout the year
 Vacation leave days (if you are taking any)
 In-service training days
 Weekends and public days
This gives the actual working days available to personally implement your plan of
work. You may delegate or assign responsibility to someone else in order to ensure
continuity then develop plan of work.
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 Plan of work
-is a comprehensive statement of programme activities?
It identifies what you plan to do to solve the real problems identified. It is written and
specifies the particular problems of a specific target group. . It sets objectives
specifies what methods will be used, when, where how and by who .It is a means by
which we move towards a stated programme objective.
Steps in developing a plan of work
Step one –list down programme projects you have established then
programme development steps.
a) E.g. Animal production- 1.cattle management
2. Veld management
b) Conservation- 1. Contour maintenance
2. Gully reclamation
3. Contour construction and pegging
c) Farm management- 1 crop budget
2 record keeping
Step two -developing technical package programme of the above listed

projects. The components of the technical package for each project should:
a) Show all the project operations
b) Show costs for all the project operations
c) Show expected gross margin for each project for that year
Maize Project Package

 Listing operations or activities and costing.
Activity Amount
($)
Winter ploughing 60
Ordering supplies 26
Manuring
Land preparation
Cultivation
Top dressing 36
Pest and disease control 10
Second top dressing 36
Harvesting
Stover collection
Shelling
Marketing 80
Total per ha 248
Total production cost 248

Gross income from 40 bags at $19, 53/bag =782
Gross margin/ha (782-248) =534
Step 3-enter the activities of each project on individual project forms.
Page 44 of 51
Plan of Work
What Why Who When Where How Material
(activity) (objective) (person) (time) (place) (method) required
E.g. Increase Extension Dece Demo Demo See technical
maize yield worker mber farm farm visit package
top income and
dressing farmer
Step 4-extract monthly activities from all project forms e.g.

December
Project Activity
Maize top dressing
Sorghum planting by farmer checked by extension
worker.
-Enter the information into the work schedule form. Each enterprise should have its
own form.
Work Schedule: Project e.g. Groundnuts

Extension worker--------- Area District--------- Area Province
Activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Winter …. ---- ---- ….

plough ---
Supplie …. --- --- 
s ----
Record
s
KEY
---- Action by extension worker
 Evaluation
…. Action by farmers
N.B. A work schedule is just a calendar of activities e.g. for a crop or animal.
Step 5-Draw up an itinerary from your plan of work.

This is extraction of activities of concern for the month from plan of work. This should
be entered into the activity column of your monthly itinerary as below:
Write the day and place where the activity is going to be performed. Calculate and
enter the mileage and subsistence requirements. After the activity fill in the results.
Monthly Itinerary
Name---------Designation--------- Month---------
Date Place Activities/inputs Budget Results
Page 45 of 51
6. Implementation of the plan
-This involves action to carry out the planned activities.

Factors to be borne in mind during the Implementation stage
a) start at the right time as planned
b) ensure there is adequate and appropriate equipment well before they are needed
c) ensure the approval and co-operative of the farmers and that there is adequate
communication between programme implementers and controllers
d) Look for ways of improving solutions and plans during actions. Encourage critical
and constructive suggestions from farmers, subordinates, superiors, and other
people who may be interested in the programme e.g. N.G.O. representatives.
e) Discard unworkable plan or solution
f) Do not abandon a good solution because of a weakness in a plan, rather remove
the weaknesses
g) Ensure that your activities are timely in terms of the farming calendar
h) Ensure that all persons involved are properly drained and understand their roles,
establish procedures and responsibilities.
i) Be sure the planned activities are supported by adequate time and money.
j) Continually evaluate programme objectives
k) Farmer participation –have farmers as heads for various enterprise projects. These
should be knowledgeable and skilled than other farmers. The extension should
work closely with these farmers.
7. Evaluation And Reconsidering

-is the process of judging the work value or meaning of something using relevant
information and relating it to predetermined criteria or standards. These are the
standards set in the programme objectives.
a) Types of Evaluation
1. Formative/Process Evaluation
-the evaluation of the process at every stage of the programme cycle.
-enables timely corrections and recommendations during project implementations, (a
stitch in time saves nine)
2. Mid-Term Evaluation
-is done when the project has reached half its implementation stage.
-help to decide whether to adjust or eliminate the project.
-it also gives an indication on input use and project completion target.
3. Terminal Evaluation
-is carried out at the end of the project.
-modern planning emphasises on process evaluation and still does a terminal
evaluation.
4. Impact Evaluation
-ensure the question what has the programme done to the area and the people of
the area is their tangible evidence of success and effort
Timing of evaluation will depend on the project .it may vary from 2 or 3 months to 2-
3 years after completion.
-it assess the sustainability of a project
Elements of a meaningful evaluation

a) Criteria- (standards and yardsticks) against which the programme is judged
b) Guidance- the extent to which the programme meets these criteria
Page 46 of 51
-find out if the people are adopting fully or partially or are they rejecting the
technology
c) Judgement-of the extent to which criteria were met. Evaluation only occurs when
all the elements are taken into account, remember the results of the evaluation must
be used.
Reasons for Evaluation
a) To determine the degree or extend to which programme objective were met.
(Objectives should be smart and specific to provide the basis for evaluation)
b) To identify programme outcomes or results. These outcomes can be:
 Negative results (it is important to identify failures and the reasons for such
failures so that corrective measures are taken)
 positive side effects
c) To improve programme (ongoing and future programmes)
-as you evaluate you determine the appropriateness of methods. The information
can be used to improve our extension programmes
d) For future purpose-programme funding, i.e. to ensure accountability of
expenditure of programmes e.g. making out gross margins. To help seek for
programme support and to help make better decisions.
Development of an Evaluation Plan
-To develop an evaluation plan you should answer the following questions
a) What is to be evaluated?
1) Objectives-evaluate what you have set out to achieve, i.e. they should be
measurable
2) Methods/approaches /strategies-were they appropriate or not (e.g.
3) Resources -availability and appropriateness for the programme
b) What indicators to use to measure progress of each objective?
An indicator is what you look for at every stage of programme development and
implementation, which will show that you are making the desired progress. Indicators
can be in terms of time, yields, adoption rates, knowledge change, attitude change,
skills, etc.
c) What data will be collected?
We need data to the following areas:
1) Quality-how good was the programme
-how did people react to it
2) Suitability-did it meet and expectations of the participants?
-did it meet the expectations of your area?
3) Effectiveness-what did the programme accomplish?
- How well did it accomplish the objectives?
4) Efficiency-were the achievements sufficient to warrant the amount of resources
used
5) Importance –how valuable was it to those who participated?
-was its importance in accordance with the resources that were used
d) How will the data be collected?
-choose appropriate methods because some of our farmers are semi-illiterate.
Practical methods include:
 Observation – at all stages of programme planning, one should be a good listener
and observer.
 Interviews –individual or group.
 Participatory
Page 47 of 51
e) When will the data be collected?

-Collect and record data all the time though –out of the programme.
f) Who will collect the data?
-farmers involved in the programme.
-the extensionists with the help of a trained evaluator
N.B:
1) It is advisable to include many people in the evaluation to ensure more objective
evaluation.
2) An outsider can be included to reduce bias.
3) All those involved in the programme should understand why the evaluation is
being carried out.
Reconsideration
-From the results of evaluation, where do we go?
-Should involve farmers because they are actual implementers of the work plan. The
decisions should be based on the results of the evaluation. Farmers must agree on
what to do next because any change will largely depend on the farmers
‘commitment’.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Rural development is a process of transforming a rural society and provide a better
and more secure livelihood of rural people.
It involves analysing problems and proposal of relevant solutions.
Concepts in Rural Development
Development is usually seen as an increase in production or productivity of land,
labour and capital in agriculture.
Agricultural development implies the shift from traditional methods of production to
new science based methods that include new technological components, for
example new cultural practises.
1. Endogenous development
Emphasis is on those areas which can do better for a group of citizens.
The basic characteristics of endogenous model of rural development are as follows:
Key principle- The specific resources of an area (natural, human and cultural) hold
the key to its sustainable development.
Dynamic force- Local initiative and enterprise
Function of rural areas- Diverse service economies.
Major rural development problems- The limited capacity of areas and social groups
to participate in economic and development activities.
Focus of rural development- capacity building (skills, institutions and infrastructure)
and overcoming social exclusions.
2. Agro – industrial (rural) districts
They consider long standing socio-economic networks originating from the
agricultural past as a crucial factor for success.
-Collective action enables small entrepreneurs to mobilise social relations to improve
their economic performance.
3 The network paradigm- The third way
It seeks to establish a third way or synthesis between endogenous (local bottom up)
and exogenous (extra- local, top-down) links in order to foster learning and
innovation process.
4. Multifunctional agriculture as a way for rural development.
Page 48 of 51
They state that integrated rural development can be constructed very effectively
using the innovativeness and entrepreneurial skills present in the agricultural
sector itself.
5. Rural disadvantages- access and resources.

One of the aims of rural development is to eliminate or overcome comparative
disadvantages, to ensure fair competition and social and economic cohesion
between different areas.
- Underdevelopment of different infrastructures is known as access- type
disadvantages. These are usually visible and quantifiable results of uneven
development based on imperfect resources. Examples are: bad physical access
due to poor infrastructure (roads and telecommunications) Economic access e.g.
lack of local banks.
- Resource type disadvantage is the limited ability and resources to produce goods
and services saleable on the global market. The disadvantages are due to long
term economic and political dependency on urban centres.
6. The reconfiguration of rural values as local development resources.

There are a number of values which are generally considered to be positive and
have been sustained better in rural, than in urban areas. Rural resources are
those rural values which are converted and utilised during rural development.
Rural development should consider both newly emerging and historically rooted
realities.
-These include ecological values- Clean environment and biodiversity, natural and
cultural landscapes.
-Cultural values- (rural culture, and arts and craft minority languages and traditional
ways of life).
Community values- (Social networks and special ways of communication).
APPROACHES TO RURAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Problem solving
Involves dealing with or working jointly with farmers to solve his problems. The
problem puts the farmer and his constraints and his abilities at the Centre stage. The
farmer’s problems is the central point for planning and implementation of an
extension programme. The diagnostic approach is applied.
2. Production Technology approach.

This is the innovation centred approach. The aim is to transfer technology to farmers
through persuasive ways.
3. General agricultural extension approach.

The main feature is improving productivity and efficiency of the entire farming
community by providing a wide subject matter coverage. The extension system
seeks to solve farmer’s problems.
4. Group development area approach
This is based on area and project development where soon after independence
the government provided funding while the community provided labour. This
allowed the extension agents to penetrate difficulty areas. The drawbacks were
Page 49 of 51
that it was difficult to direct services to the needy & there was a problem of donor
syndrome.
5. Master farmer training approach
This originated in the 1930s as a way to develop competent farmers. This was
done to spread modern farming techniques in communal areas. This was based
on trickle-down theory of extension. Advanced master farmer training was
introduced after independence. This was said to have benefited better- off
farmers and had excluded the bulky of communal farmers.
6. Commodity based approach

Tobacco, cotton, sugarcane and horticulture are the major crops in Zimbabwe.
This has greatly helped the cotton production sector through cotton research
programmes. Out grower schemes were also established, research and input
credit services to farmers were also made possible thtough yhe commodity based
approach.
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Accessibility- There is need to ensure that the programme and its benefits can
reach those in need and beware of the consequences of some farmers having
access to the programmes while others do not.
2. Going forward- The technological aspects of the rural development programmes
should help to develop the farmer and should be sustainable.
3. Effectiveness- There is need for effective use of resources.
4. Independence – The farmer’s livelihood must not depend on one particular
programme but the programme must support the farmer.
5. Sustainability- Ensure that the programme plans and solutions are relevant to the
local economic, social and cultural situation. Short term solutions may yield quick
results, while long term programmes that are suitable to local environment have
greater success.
Projects should stress the following areas

-Thorough selection and training of staff
-Project staff should avoid dominating behaviour
-Open and effective relations between staff members
- Targets should be based on conditions in the field.
-Projects should be based on local service and self-reliance.
-Fullest cooperation between departments at local and district level.
-Involvement of local leaders in initiating and organising work so as to ensure
continuity and viability of the programme.
Page 50 of 51
ENJOY !!
2. ATgAro in
Page 51 of 51

Agric Extension

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Agric Extension

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Muswehaurari C Diploma notes CHIBERO COLLEGE

Extension - It means to widen and enlarge a psychological or physical area of need.

Roles of extension in agriculture development

2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF EXTENSION IN ZIMBABWE

Development of agriculture extension BEFORE independence

Development of extension in the commercial farming sector

Results of this extension effort:

Development of extension in the communal sector

Results of this extension effort: - it was a failure due to: -

produce a “critical mass” of trained farmers to occupy the small-scale commercial

Development of extension AFTER independence

Overview of agriculture extension in Zimbabwe

The objectives of AGRITEX

-To assist in the implementation of the policy of government in relation to the

The agents clients/ clientele

C.F.U (Commercial Farmers Union)

A strong extension service must have the following attributes:

Roles of an extension agent

Role Levels of Extension Agents

Research Extension Farmer Linkages

COMMUNICATION AND MOTIVATION

Office calls, phone calls

b. Group approach Method demonstration

c. Mass media leaflets, newspapers, circular letter

ii. The flow of communication i.e. lateral upwards or down wards

3. Need for achievement

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Actualisation- self fulfillment

Self Esteem-Stability, Self respect,

Safety-Thrift free environment job

Physiological-water, Food, Air,

Douglas McGregor’s X and Y Theory

2. Most people must be concerned or forced/controlled directed or forced/controlled

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF ADULT LEARNING

- Adults want functional education

PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING

3. When do adults learn?

2. When they have a clear and well define objective.

sanitation and infrastructure development. The chairpersons passes villagers

Traditional antiquits- Something which is historic and monumental to the society

Social organisation Culture

3. Roles and Self-Image

Meetings/lecturers are held to introduce and discuss the new idea.

ADOPTION CAPACITY OF INNOVATION IN RURAL SOCIETY OR THE

Early adopters Early majority Late majority Laggards

innovators 2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16%

No local leaders as they fear to lose their dignity.

2. Early adopters 13.5%

4. Late majority 34%

Factors which affect rate of adoption in the diffusion system.

Extension methods in common use

Methods – are viewed as means by which extension is effected in target population

Advantages of individual methods

Disadvantages of individual extension methods

Techniques in Individual Extension Methods.

ii. Diagnosis –Prescription Model – (is commonly used by medical doctors to

Group Extension method

Groups can be classified according to size Large, Small and Medium.

b. SECONDARY GROUP/ FORMAL

Characteristics of formal and informal groups

Advantages of group methods

Disadvantages of group methods