Ethics in the Ancient Times: The

Good Life and Virtue Ethics

ATIENZA
DE JESUS
VARGAS
PLATO
Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher who lived from 427 to 347 BC.
He was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. Plato is best
known for his writings, particularly his dialogues, in which he explores
a wide range of philosophical topics, including ethics, politics,
metaphysics, and epistemology. One of Plato's central concerns was the
question of how to live a good life. He believed that the ultimate goal of
human existence was to achieve eudaimonia, which is often translated
as "happiness" or "well-being," but which for Plato encompassed a
broader sense of flourishing and fulfillment. The term "virtue ethics,"
which refers to a normative ethical theory that emphasizes the
development of virtues as the path to moral excellence, is frequently
used to refer to Plato's theory of ethics. Virtue ethics is concerned with
character development and the cultivation of moral virtues like courage,
wisdom, justice, and temperance as opposed to consequentialist or
deontological ethical theories, which emphasize the rightness or
wrongness of actions.
The Good Life

Socrates believed that the ultimate goal of human existence was to

achieve eudaimonia, which he understood as a state of moral and
intellectual excellence. For Socrates, the good life was one that was
lived in pursuit of wisdom, truth, and virtue. He believed that the pursuit
of these ideals was the key to achieving happiness and fulfillment. He
famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living,"
meaning that a life without reflection and critical self-examination
was a life that lacked true meaning and purpose. And thus, Plato
articulates that a life that is in consonance with reason is the best, as
he continued to follow the teachings of Socrates.
Teleology and the
Theory of Forms
In Plato's philosophy, teleology refers to the idea that everything in the
natural world has a purpose or end goal, and that this purpose is part of a
larger, universal plan. This concept is closely tied to Plato's theory of
Forms, which is the idea that there exists a realm of eternal and
unchanging abstract objects or "Forms" that are the true objects of
knowledge. The physical world that we perceive with our senses,
according to Plato, is merely a shadow or a flawed replica of the
world of Forms. The imperfect copies of the perfect Form of the
object, which exists in the world of Forms, can be found in the
physical world as objects like chairs or trees. Everything in the
physical world aspires to be more like its Form because that is the
true essence or nature of the object.
Teleology and the
Theory of Forms
The second doctrine that is crucial in the understanding of Plat’s
ethical theory is the Theory of Forms. For Plato, all knowledge is a
remembering. In other words, general ideas are not derived from
experience rather they are prior to it. The Platonic Theory postulates
that our knowledge of things is only made possible because of our
knowledge of perfect things that is already imprinted in our minds.
He argues that without the permanence of perfection of forms, there
can be no real knowledge since the world of experience keeps on
changing and constantly dependent from person to person.
Teleology and the
Theory of Forms
In this sense, Plato's theory of Forms can be seen as a teleological
theory, in that it posits that everything in the physical world is
striving towards its true purpose or end goal, which is to become
more like its Form. This idea is particularly evident in Plato's
metaphysical and ethical theories, which emphasize the idea that the
ultimate purpose of human life is to achieve a state of moral and
intellectual perfection, or eudaimonia. The pursuit of eudaimonia
involves striving to become more like the Form of the Good, which is
the ultimate object of knowledge and the source of all other Forms.
The Form of the Good is the ultimate goal of teleological striving, as
it is the highest Form and the source of all other Forms.
Aristotle

Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE in the

city of Stagira, located in modern-day Greece. He was a student of
Plato and tutored Alexander the Great, who would go on to become
one of the most successful military commanders in history. Aristotle
was a prolific writer and covered a wide range of subjects including
metaphysics, ethics, politics, biology, and physics. He is often
regarded as one of the most important figures in Western philosophy,
and his ideas have had a profound influence on the development of
science, ethics, and politics.
Aristotle

When he was in his 41th year, Aristotle was chosen to be the private
tutor of Alexander the Great. For 3 years, he has honed the
intellectual skills of the young Alexander, forming a bond of
discipleship and friendship between the two of them. In 335 B.C,
Aristotle went back to Athens to establish the Lyceum. It was at this
point in his life that he researched and wrote extensively towards
various subjects. He was later then highly regarded as “The
Philosopher” and “The Dean of the Sciences”. He then died on 322
B.C at Chalcis in the island of Euboea.
Aristotle
Aristotle's work "The Nicomachean Ethics" is one of the most
famous and influential works in the field of ethics. In this work,
Aristotle develops his theory of Virtue Ethics, which is based on
the idea that living a good life requires developing good character
traits or virtues. While teaching at the Lyceum, Aristotle wrote the
Nicomachean Ethics, the very first systematic treatment of Ethics
in the history of Western thought. Aristotle emphasized the
preeminence of man’s rationality and the teleological nature of the
cosmos. Contrary to Plato, Aristotle argued that basic moral
principles are derived from our day-to-day experiences.
Consequently, the study of our daily lives gives us an idea what is
morally good and what is morally evil. He rejected Plato’s
proposition that there is an idea of “good” separate and
independent from our experiences.
Aristotle
"The Nicomachean Ethics" is named after Aristotle's father,
Nicomachus, and it consists of ten books. In this work, Aristotle
explores a range of topics related to ethics, including the nature of
happiness or eudaimonia, the role of virtues in achieving
eudaimonia, and the importance of practical wisdom or phronesis.

Self-sufficiency means that is must not lack anything, final means

that is must be desirable for its own sake, and lastly it must be
attainable by everyone. For Aristotle, happiness alone fulfills all
these characteristics. But what is the meaning of happiness? What
is its nature? What conditions must be met in order to attain it?
Aristotle
For Aristotle, self-sufficiency was not just a matter of having
enough material resources to meet one's needs. It also involved
developing the virtues necessary for leading a good life, such as
courage, wisdom, and justice. A person who possessed these
virtues and was able to apply them in their daily life was
considered truly self-sufficient. Aristotle believed that self-
sufficiency was a key element of a virtuous and flourishing life.
He argued that a person who is self-sufficient is better able to
pursue the higher goods of contemplation and virtue, since they
are not distracted by the need to constantly seek out the necessities
of life. Furthermore, Aristotle believed that self-sufficiency was
not just an individual matter but also applied to communities and
political entities. He argued that a city-state that was self-sufficient
was better able to provide for the needs of its citizens and to
promote the common good.
Moral Virtues VS
Intellectual Virtues
Aristotle distinguished between two types of virtues: moral virtues
and intellectual virtues. Moral virtues are habits or dispositions
that enable us to act in accordance with reason and to develop
good character traits, while intellectual virtues are habits or
dispositions that enable us to reason well and to understand the
world around us. Moral virtues are concerned with the choices we
make in our everyday lives and the actions we take. Aristotle
believed that moral virtues are developed through habituation and
practice, and that they are found in the middle ground between two
extremes. Intellectual virtues, on the other hand, are concerned
with knowledge and understanding. Aristotle believed that
intellectual virtues are developed through education and training,
and that they enable us to reason well and to understand the world
around us.
Epicurus
Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the
school of philosophy known as Epicureanism. He was born on the
island of Samos, but spent much of his life in Athens where he
established his own school of philosophy in a garden, which
became known as "The Garden". Epicurus believed that the
ultimate goal of human life was to achieve happiness and pleasure.
He argued that happiness was not to be found in external goods
such as wealth, fame or power, but in the cultivation of a simple,
peaceful and virtuous life According to Epicurus, the way to
achieve happiness was to eliminate fear of the gods and death, to
live in harmony with others, and to seek pleasure in moderation.
Epicurus was a prolific writer, but very few of his works have
survived. Most of what we know about his philosophy comes from
the writings of his followers, such as Lucretius, who wrote a poem
called "On the Nature of Things" that elaborated on Epicurean
philosophy.
Epicurus
The Epicurean Meaning of Pleasure, the ethical theory of Epicurus
teaches the principle that pleasure is the highest good. But what is
pleasure? Epicurus argues that human nature operates in such a
way that human persons always look for what will give them
pleasure and avoid what will cause them harm. He thinks there is
nothing wrong with this because no pleasure is a bad thing in
itself. According to his theory, it is solely focused on pursuit of
pleasure as the ultimate goal of human life. However, it is
important to note that Epicurus' idea of pleasure was not limited to
hedonism or the pursuit of sensual pleasures. Instead, he believed
that pleasure should be pursued in a thoughtful and deliberate way,
and that true happiness could only be achieved through a balanced
and rational pursuit of pleasure. Epicurus also believed that
pleasure was intimately connected to the elimination of pain and
fear.
Epicurus
Epicurus believed that active pleasures were superior to passive
pleasures because they required effort and were therefore more
likely to lead to lasting happiness. He argued that the pursuit of
passive pleasures, such as eating or sleeping, could quickly
become addictive and ultimately lead to dissatisfaction and
unhappiness. In contrast, the pursuit of active pleasures was seen
as a way to cultivate virtues such as self-control, courage, and
wisdom. By engaging in activities that required effort and
discipline, individuals could develop their character and ultimately
achieve a state of tranquility and contentment.
Epicurus
According to Epicurus, ataraxia could be achieved by eliminating
fear and anxiety from our lives. He believed that the greatest
obstacles to happiness were the fear of death and the fear of the
gods. By understanding that death is nothing to us because it is the
end of consciousness and that the gods are distant and
unconcerned with human affairs, we could eliminate these fears
and achieve a state of inner peace and tranquility. Overall, for
Epicurus, ataraxia was the ultimate state of happiness,
characterized by a sense of inner peace, freedom from fear and
anxiety, and a balanced and rational approach to pleasure. It was a
state that could be achieved through the elimination of negative
emotions, the cultivation of virtues, and the pursuit of a simple and
meaningful life.
Epictetus
Epictetus was a Greek Stoic philosopher who lived from around
50-135 AD. He was born into slavery in Hierapolis, in what is now
modern-day Turkey, and was later freed by his master. There are
small information known about Epictetus. There are reports that he
born in the Greek city of Hierapolis in Phyrgiain A.D. According
to historical documents, when he was a child, his parents sold him
to become a slave to a Roman soldier. While is it true that he was a
slave, Roman tradition dictates that they can attend lectures
delivered by teachers in the city. When his master died, Epictetus
was able to regain his freedom. At that point in his life, Epictetus
is already considered by many as a philosopher. He lived a life
dedicated to writing and teaching the principles of Stoicism until
his death in 130 A.D.
Epictetus
Epictetus' philosophy emphasized the importance of self-
discipline, reason, and virtue. He believed that individuals could
achieve happiness and inner peace by accepting what is within
their control and letting go of what is not. He emphasized the idea
of self-mastery, or the ability to control one's thoughts and
emotions, as a key component of living a good life. Epictetus was
a Stoic philosopher who lived in the first century AD. His
philosophy was grounded in Stoic ethics, which emphasized the
importance of living a virtuous life and cultivating inner peace and
tranquility in the face of life's challenges. Epictetus believed that
the ultimate goal of life was to achieve eudaimonia, which roughly
translates to "flourishing" or "happiness." However, he believed
that true happiness could only be achieved by living a virtuous
life, which involved practicing virtues such as wisdom, courage,
justice, and self-control.