Lecture 2

Data types and data models

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 In Situ Data
In Situ Data
 In situ or in-place data collection: Scientists go out in the field and
question the phenomena of interest or deploy instruments in the field to
collect much of ground data for physical, biological, and social science
research.
 In situ data can be part of collateral (ancillary data). In situ ground
reference data are often referred to as ground truth data.
 Scientists formulate hypotheses and then attempt to accept or reject
them in a systematic, unbiased fashion. The data necessary to accept or
reject a hypothesis may be collected directly in the field, often referred
to as in situ or in-place data collection. This can be a time-consuming,
expensive, and inaccurate process.

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 Problems Associated with In Situ Data Collection
 Scientists often collect data in the field using biased procedures, which is
referred to as the method-produced error. Such error can be introduced by:
 Sample design does not capture the spatial variability of the phenomena
under investigation (i.e., some phenomena or geographic areas are
oversampled whereas others are undersampled)
 Improper operation of in situ measurements; or uncalibrated in situ
measurement instruments.
 A remote sensing instrument collects information about an object or
phenomenon within the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of the sensor
system. The sensor is located on a suborbital or satellite platform.
 IFOV is the solid angle subtended by a single pixel of the imaging system
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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions
 Spatial Resolution
 A measure of the smallest angular or linear separation between two objects that can be
resolved by the sensor.
 Satellite sensors with fixed orbit and fixed optical systems have a constant
instantaneous field of view (IFOV).
 Sensor’s nominal spatial resolution is the dimension in meters of the ground projected
IFOV.
 The greater the resolving power of the sensor system, the smaller the spatial resolution,
hence the more detailed information.
 In order to detect a feature, the spatial resolution of the sensor should be less than one-
half the size of the feature measured in its smallest dimension

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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions
 Spatial Resolution

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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions
 Spatial Resolution

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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions
 Spatial Resolution

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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions
 Spatial Resolution

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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions
 Spatial Resolution
Satellite Spatial Spectral Temporal

Landsat TM 30 m/excellent 6 bands/good 2 weeks/poor

Landsat MSS 79 m/good 4 bands/fair 2 weeks/poor
WiFS 200 m/fair 2 bands/fair-poor 5 days/poor
MODIS 1 km/500m/250 m 36 bands/excellent 1 day/fair-poor
Poor-fair
AVHRR 1 km/poor 2 bands/fair-poor 1 day/fair-poor
SeaWiFS 1 km/poor 8 bands/good 1 day/fair-poor
GOES 1 km/poor 1 visible band/poor 15 minutes/excellent

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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions
 Spectral Resolution
 The number (multispectral) or dimension (hyper-spectral) of specific wavelength
intervals in the EM spectrum to which a remote sensing instrument is sensitive .
 Low Spectral Resolution: < 3 bands; Multi-spectral: Typically 3-15 bands; Hyper-
spectral: Hundreds of spectral bands, e.g., Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging
Spectrometer (AVIRIS) 224 bands

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 Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions

 Spectral Resolution: Multi-spectral and Spectral Reflectance Curve

 Spectral reflectance curve: Spectral reflectance of an object as a function of wavelength.
 Configuration of the spectral reflectance curves gives us insights into the spectral characteristics
(signature) of an object.
 Guiding us in selecting wavelength region(s)
Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions

Radiometric Resolution
The sensitivity of remote sensor to differences in signal strength as
it records the radiant flux reflected or emitted from the terrain.
The number of discriminable signal levels, 6-bits (64 levels) for
Landsat-1 MSS, 8-bits (1-byte) for most, and 10-bits for AVHRR.

7‒
bit
(0-127)
8‒
bit
(0-255)
9‒
bit
(0-511)
10 ‒
bit
Spatial/Spectral/Radiometric/Temporal Resolutions

Temporal Resolution
How often a sensor visits a particular area. It is determined by the
repeat cycle of satellite or the off-nadir pointable ability.
Analysis of multiple date imagery provides information on how
the
environmental variables change over time.

June 1, 2004 June 17, 2004 July 3, 2004

16 days

Temporal resolution of Landsat TM/ETM+

 Nature of Digital Image

 Digital Images
 A digital image is a two-dimensional array of DN values.
 An image is referred to as any pictorial representation, regardless of
what wavelengths or remote sensing devices have been used to
detect
and record electromagnetic (Samples)
energy.
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Pixel Y Columns
X (Lines)Rows 20 21 35 30
20 21 35 30

Image scan line 18 25 25 27

1
Rows Columns 2
3
20 23 40 36
4 Bands
5
6 23 24 30 29
7

Single band image

Multi-spectral image
 Atmospheric Windows

 Some wavelengths cannot be used in remote sensing because the atmosphere

absorbs essentially all the photons at these wavelengths that are produced by
the sun. In particular, the molecules of water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
ozone in our atmosphere block solar radiation.
 The wavelength ranges in which the atmosphere is generally
transparent are called atmospheric windows.
 GIS data model
 Allows the geographic features in real world locations to be
digitally represented and stored in a database so that they can
be abstractly presented in map (analog) form, and can also be
worked with and manipulated to address some problem.

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 The Feature Model
 It divides a mapped landscape into features, that can be points,
lines, or areas/polygons.
 Using a GIS involves capturing the spatial distribution of features
by measurements of the world or of maps.
 Almost all human activity and natural phenomena are spatially
distributed, and so can be studied in GIS

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Features

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 DATA
REPRESENTATION
DATA REPRESENTATION (Vector)
DATA REPRESENTATION (Raster)
DATA REPRESENTATION
COMMON GIS DATA FORMATS
THE GIS MODEL: EXAMPLE

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 Spatial and Attribute Data

Spatial data (where)

specifies location
stored in a shape file, geodatabase or similar geographic file
Attribute (descriptive) data (what, how much, when) specifies
characteristics at that location, natural or human- created
stored in a data base table
GIS systems traditionally maintain spatial and attribute data
separately, then “join” them for display or analysis
for example, in Arcview, the Attributes of … table is used to link a
shapefile (spatial structure) with a data base table containing attribute
information in order to display the attribute data spatially on a map
Representing data as raster and vector model
Raster Model
area is covered by grid with (usually) equal-sized, square cells
attributes are recorded by assigning each cell a single value based on the majority feature
(attribute) in the cell, such as land use type.
Image data is a special case of raster data in which the “attribute” is a reflectance value from
the geomagnetic spectrum cells in image data often called pixels (picture elements)

Vector Model
The fundamental concept of vector GIS is that all geographic features in the real work can be
represented either as:
points or dots (nodes): trees, poles, fire plugs, airports, cities
lines (arcs): streams, streets, sewers,
areas (polygons): land parcels, cities, counties, forest, rock type
Because representation depends on shape, ArcView refers to files containing vector data as
shapefiles
Concept of Vector and Raster
 TYPES OF RASTER DATA
• Rasters may be categorized as:

• – Image rasters

• – Thematic rasters

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 IMAGE RASTERS
 Image rasters are typically produced by an optical or
electronic device such as a camera or scanner. Digital
photographs or images are a type of raster dataset.
 THEMATIC RASTERS
 Thematic rasters represent geographic features or phenomena with
either discrete or continuous data.
- DEM’s are a common type of thematic raster dataset.
 RASTER VALUES

• It represent data using either integers (whole

number) or floating points (number with
decimals).

• Integer rasters are used to represent discrete

data, such as landuse,and floating point rasters
are used to represent continuous data, such as
like elevation or slope.
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 INTEGERS RASTER VALUES
 A discrete raster dataset contains cells whose values are integers,
often code numbers for a particular category.

 Cells can have the same value in a discrete raster dataset.

Integer raster datasets have a value attribute table (VAT) that
stores the cell values and their associated attributes.
 FLOATING RASTER VALUES
 Unlike discrete raster datasets, continuous raster
datasets (floating point raster datasets) do not have
an attribute table because each cell in a continuous
raster dataset can have a different floating point
value.
 Cells in this type of raster dataset do not fall neatly
into discrete categories

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 RASTER BANDS

A raster dataset can be either simple (one layer)

or composite (a collection of multiple layers).
These raster layers are referred to as bands.

Multispectral rasters

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 SPATIAL REFERENCE FOR RASTERS
 In the raster, cells are referenced by their row and
column position.
 The rows and columns are numbered from the top
left corner of the raster, starting with zero.
 The cell in the top left corner has row and column
coordinates of 0,0. This cell is known as the raster's
cell origin
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SPATIAL REFERENCE FOR RASTERS

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 SPATIAL RESOLUTION (CELL SIZE)
 Spatial resolution refers to the area of the real world
represented by one cell in the raster.
 A high-resolution dataset will have cells that represent
relatively small areas in the real world, thereby providing
more detail.
 A low-resolution dataset will have cells that represent a
large area and provide a less detail.

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SPATIAL RESOLUTION (CELL SIZE)

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 Satellite Orbits
 The path followed by a satellite in space is referred to as the
satellite orbit.
 A satellite always moves in a fixed plane. This is called the
orbital plane, and in the case of a satellite orbiting the
Earth this plane always passes through the center of the
Earth.

 The orbit of a satellite can be elliptical or circular in

shape, but remote sensing satellites are usually put in
circular orbits
 Polar Orbit VS Equatorial Orbit
The plane of an orbit must pass through the Earth’s center but can be in any
orientation.
If its orbit is inclined at more than 45 degree to the equatorial plane then a
satellite is in polar orbit.
Satellite orbits are designed according to the capability and objectives of the
sensors they carry. Orbit selection can vary in terms of altitude and their
orientation and rotation relative to the Earth.
 Orbital Height and Perturbation
Below 180 km, the Earth’s atmosphere is too dense for satellites to orbit
without burning as a result of frictional heating.
Above 180 km there is still a small atmospheric drag on a satellite, causing its
orbit to spiral downward gradually until eventually it reaches thicker atmosphere
and burns. Satellite can be launched into such low orbits, but they do not last
long.
Above 600-800 km, there is little atmosphere drag that a satellite will remain
in high orbit indefinitely.
Various forces other than atmospheric drag can perturb an orbit, such as
gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon.
The drift can be compensated using jets of gas to maintain the orbit
and also to control the spin of the satellite.
 Types of Satellite Orbits
Two general classes of circular orbits are widely used for
meteorological and environmental observations of the Earth:
Geostationary orbits
Sun-synchronous near-polar orbits (briefed as polar orbits)
 Geostationary Orbits

 The geostationary satellites, at altitude of about 36,000 km, go

around the Earth at speeds which match the rotation of the
Earth so they seem stationary relative to the Earth’s surface.
Geostationary satellites complete a orbit in 24 hours.
 This allows the satellite to remain over specific areas and
monitor and collect information continuously and constantly.
 The orbit is circular, and its inclination is zero degree, which
means that it is above the Earth’s equator.
 Geostationary Orbits

 Weather and communication satellites commonly have

geostationary orbits.
 Due to their high altitude (almost three times the diameter of
the Earth), and some geostationary weather satellites can
monitor weather and cloud patterns covering an almost entire
hemisphere of the Earth.
 Since the satellite does not move in relation to the Earth, it can
frequently and repetitively observe and monitor the same
portion of the Earth for the purpose of detecting, tracking and
predicting the weather or natural hazards.
 Geostationary Orbits

 Making continuous observations over the same geographic

areas permits intensive study of both daily variability and
change over longer time periods, for instance, tracking storms
and hurricanes.
 High-temporal resolution observations from geostationary
satellite are essential for monitoring short-term processes
necessary to build adequate physical and dynamic modeling
and parameterization in global Earth system models.
 Ideal for making repeated observations of a fixed geographical
area centered on the equator, polar areas are always covered
poorly. Geostationary satellite images of the polar region are
distorted because of the low angle from which the satellite sees
the region.
 Geostationary Satellite in Orbits
Global coverage needs a network of 5-6 geostationary satellite
Geostationary satellites in orbit include
Meteosat (ESA, covering Europe and Africa)
GOES-EAST (NOAA, covering N
GOES-WEST (NOAA, covering E orth and South America)
GMS (Japan, covering Japan and A astern Pacific)
Fengyun-2 (China, covering China a ustralia, Western Pacific) nd the
GOMS (Elektro) Indian Ocean) (Russia,
covering Central Asia and the Indian Ocean)
INSAT (India)

ESA: European Space Agency

GOES: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
GMS: Geostationary Meteorological Satellite operated by the Japan Meteorological
Agency
GOMS: Russian Geostationary Operational Meteorological Satellite
INSAT: Indian National Satellite System
 Geostationary Satellite in Orbits

Constellation of geostationary satellites covering the entire Earth surface

 Polar Orbiting Satellites
 Most of remote sensing satellite platforms today are in near-polar orbits for meteorological
and geophysical applications.
 Polar orbiting satellites closely parallel the Earth’s meridian lines. They pass over the north
and south poles each revolution.
 Polar orbiting satellites can provide global or near-global coverage of the atmosphere and
Earth surface.
 Polar satellites circle at a much lower altitude (~800 km) providing higher quality remote
sensing data (more detailed information) than geostationary satellites.

 Most satellites with near polar orbits have altitudes ranging from 600 to 800
km, with orbital periods of 98 to 102 minutes.
 Polar Orbiting Satellites
 As the earth rotates to the east beneath
the satellite, each pass monitors an area
to the west of the previous pass. These
“strips” can be pieced together to
produce a picture of a large area
(mosaic).
 Typically, near polar orbit satellites are
also designed in sun-synchronous
orbits.
 A sun synchronous orbit means that a
satellite pass over each area of the
Earth’s surface at a constant local
time of day called local solar time.
 Ascending and Descending Passes
 Ascending passes of the orbit corresponds to that portion of the
orbit when the satellite is moving from south to north, while
descending passes of the orbit corresponds to north to south
movement.
Ascending
 Most sun-synchronous polar orbiters pass from north
pass to

south (descending passes) over the sunlit hemisphere and

return from south to north (ascending passes) over Descending
pass

the night- time hemisphere. In other words,

the ascending pass is on the shadowed side of the
 Earth while the descending pass is on the sunlit side.
Sensors recording reflected solar energy only image the surface on a
descending pass, when solar illumination is available. Active sensors
that
provide their own illumination or passive sensors that record emitted
radiation (thermal infrared) can also image the surface on ascending passes.

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 Polar Orbiting Satellite in Orbits
Examples include POES, DMSP, Landsat, SPOT, IRS, etc.

POES: Polar Operational Environmental Satellite: A joint effort of

NOAA and
European Organization for the Exploration of Meteorological Satellites
(EUMETSAT)
DMSP: Defense Meteorological Satellite Program
Landsat: Earth Resources Technology Satellite, first launched on Jul 23,
1972; The Most recent, Landsat 8, was launched on Feb 11, 2013,
download from USGS
SPOT: “Satellite for observation of Earth” in French
IRS: Indian Remote Sensing satellites
 Ground Swath of Satellites
 As a satellite revolves around the Earth, the sensor images a
certain portion of the Earth’s surface. The area imaged on the
surface is referred to as ground swath.
 Imaging swaths for spaceborne sensors generally vary
between tens, hundreds, and thousands of kilometers wide.
 Since the orbital period is much less than 1 day, images of
several ground tracks can be acquired within 24 hours.
 Satellite Repeat Cycles
If we start with any randomly selected pass in a satellite’s orbit, an orbit cycle
(revisit period) will be completed when the satellite retraces its path, passing
over the same point on the Earth’s surface directly below the satellite (called the
nadir point) for a second time.
The revisit period is an important consideration for a number of monitoring
applications, especially when frequent imaging is required (for example, to
monitor the spread of an oil spill, or the extent of flooding).
In near-polar orbits, areas at high latitudes will be imaged more frequently than
the equatorial zone due to the increasing overlap in adjacent swaths as the orbit
paths come closer together near the poles.

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 Ground Receiving Stations (GRS)
 Data obtained during airborne remote sensing missions can be
retrieved once the aircraft lands. It can then be processed and
delivered to the end user.
 Data acquired from satellite platforms need to be
electronically transmitted to the Earth, since the satellite
continues to stay in orbit during its operational lifetime.

The Landsat Ground

Station (LGS) in South
Dakota, US Active Landsat LGS around the world