Fall Semester 2022

LSGI3350A Hydrographic Surveying

Prof. George Liu

Office: ZS617 (welcome to visit)

Tel: 2766 5961 (O) 5178 3176 (Cell)
email: lszzliu@polyu.edu.hk

1
 What is it?

source 2
 What is it?

The nautical chart produced by one group from

Hydro Camp in Dec 2019 at Sai Kung 3
What is it?

4
 What is it? Nautical Chart

source

5
 What is Nautical Chart?
• A nautical chart is one of the most fundamental tools
available to the mariner for safe navigation. Mariners use
charts to plan voyages and navigate ships safely and
economically.

• It is a map that depicts the configuration of the shoreline

and seafloor.

• It provides water depths, locations of dangers to

navigation, locations and characteristics of aids to
source
navigation, anchorages, and other features. source
from “Merchant Shipping (Safety)
(Navigational Equipment and
Safety of Navigation)
Regulation”, Legal Notice 122 of
2016, B2547, the Marine
Other countries/regions have similar laws. Department, Government of
HKSAR 6
 How to read a nautical chart?
The US Chart No. 1 is available on
internet for free download. It has
also been uploaded to the teaching
folder. It is a 134-page document.
It has very detailed description.

7
source
 [not shown, close to 4]

8
source
5. copyright note
 Some Remarks
• Depth conversion scales are provided on all charts to
enable the user to work in meters, fathoms or feet. 

• Though nautical charts are produced by different

countries/regions, they have uniformity in the form of
symbols and abbreviations, which have been
recommended internationally and used globally

• This enables mariners to plan passages using extensive

information they require about distant ports across the
oceans.

11
 Why hydro?
From HKSAR
Environmental
Protection
Department (EPD)
website

Detailed Site Selection Study for a Proposed

Contaminated Mud Disposal Facility within
the Airport East/East of Sha Chau Area. The
primary objective of the Study is to identify
the most suitable sites and disposal options
at the potential sites.

source 12
 Do you know?
 During 2017, a total of 372 610 (daily: 1,021)
sea-going vessels and river-trade vessels
arrived in and departed from Hong Kong

 Hong Kong was the 7th largest container ports

in 2017, with 20.76 million TEU (Twenty-foot
Equivalent Units). Shanghai is the No. 1 and it
had 40.23 million TEU in 2017.
 Do you know?
 Of the 20.76 million TEU container
throughput, some 16.2 million TEU (78%)
were handled at Kwai Tsing Container
Terminals ( 葵青貨櫃碼頭 )

 To enable ultra large container vessels to

access the container terminals at all tides,
Marine Department of HKSAR completed a
dredging project to deepen the approach
channel to Kwai Tsing Container Terminals
from the depth of 15 metres to 17 metres.
 Do you know?

High tide

Low tide

 https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/tide/marine/realtide.htm (Hong Kong tide station information)

 https://www.tideschart.com/ (Global tide station information)
 What is difference: Nautical Chart vs. Map?

• Nautical chart is for water area. Map is for land area.

• Nautical chart represents hydrographic data, providing
very detailed information on water depths, shoreline,
tide predictions, obstructions to navigation such as
rocks and shipwrecks, and navigational aids.
• Nautical charts provide detailed information on hidden
dangers to navigation.
• Nautical charts are updated frequently. e.g. Each year
NOAA issues over 11,000 corrections to their suite of
over 1,000 charts.
• In comparison, maps provide no information of the
sourcecondition of a road. Update is NOT so frequent. 16
 What is difference: Nautical Chart vs. Map?
• Some examples of maps might be road maps, or city
plans. A map usually represents topographical
information.
• A chart is used by mariners to plot courses through
open bodies of water as well as in highly trafficked
areas.
• Because of its critical importance in promoting safe
navigation, the nautical chart has a certain level of
legal standing and authority.
• A map, on the other hand, is a  reference guide
showing predetermined routes like roads and
highways.
source 17
 What is difference: Nautical Chart vs. Map?

• Commercial mariners are obligated by law to have up

to date navigational charts on board (now electronical
navigation charts, ENC)
• Recreational mariners are not required to do so by law.
• A paper chart serves as important backup when the
unexpected happens.
• Commercial land vehicle drivers are NOT obligated to
have a map, though many drivers (particularly taxi
drivers) have a Smartphone google map

source 18
 Nautical Chart in HK
• The Nautical Charts are also frequently
updated/corrected by the Marine Department of
HKSAR
• See the CHART CORRECTION RECORD here:
https://www.hydro.gov.hk/eng/summary.php
• In addition, Some
temporary notices
are weekly (e.g.
USA) or biweekly
(e.g. HK) issued
https://www.mard
ep.gov.hk/en/notic
es/notices.html

source 19
 Outline
• Introduction to Hydrographic Surveying
• Tide
1. Earth motion (rotation & revolution)
2. Moon motion (rotation & revolution)

20
What does a hydrographer do?

21
 Introduction to Hydrography

• Video 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uW0VO
Z4SRHo

• Video 2: Hydrographic Surveying Field Camp Part1

• Video 3: Hydrographic Surveying Field Camp Part2

• Video 4: Hydrographic Surveying Field Camp Part3

22
Course Assessment
 Outcome Based Approach
• Learning outcomes:
1. Understand the basic hydrographic
surveying theories taught
2. Know how to do hydrographic surveying in
the field and produce hydrographic charts
using instruments and software.
3. Resolve the practical problems in field
surveying using the learned knowledge
 Course Assessment
 Full mark: 100
 Continuous Assessment: 67 marks
 Presentation of Weekend (one-full-day) Field Practice: 10
 Report of Weekend (one-full-day) Field Practice: 15
 Participation of the Weekend (one-full-day) Field Practice
is mandatory without exception.
 Hydro Camp Report: 30
 (A+: >=28; A: >=26; B+: >=24; B: >=22; C+: >=20; C:
>=18; D+: >=16; D: >=14; F: <14)
 Lab/Assignments: 12
 CA component: (A+: >=60; A: >=56; B+: >=52; B:
>=48; C+: >=44; C: >=40; D+: >=36; D: >=32; F: <32)
Course Assessment for both BSc and
HD students
 Final exam: 33 marks
 (A+: >=30; A: >=28; B+: >=26; B: >=24;
C+: >=22; C: >=20; D+: >=18; D: >=16; F:
<16)
 If necessary, the instructor may exercise
his authority to make an adjustment to
the above score to grade conversion
rule at his discretion.
 Course Assessment
 One mark will be deducted for each lab practice if
you are late by more than 30 minutes

 15 marks are deducted if you miss the Weekend

(one-full-day) Field Practice. But you can still
participate in presentation and contribute to
report writing

 25 marks are deducted if you miss the Sai Kung

field practice, neither participate in presentation
nor contribute to report writing.
 Course Assessment
 10 marks will be deducted for each member,
in addition to other Departmental disciplinary
actions, if your group loses or damages one
instrument during Weekend (one-full-day)
Field Practice or Hydro Camp or other
practices

 Passing both the Final exam and the

continuous assessment (non-Final exam part)
is required in order to gain a non-failure grade
in this course.
 Hydro Survey Camp
 Date: 22-25 Dec. 2022
 Location: Wong Yi Chau Island, close to Sai Kung
 Final Exam period is 1-16 Dec. 2022 (Survey/UAV
Camp: 17-21 Dec 2022)
Reference Materials
 Reference one
(Hydrography)

C.D. de Jong, G. Lachapelle, S. Skone, I.A. Elema (2010), Hydrography, Delft University Press
The Netherlands, pp.366
Freely accessible at:
http://www.ucalgary.ca/engo_webdocs/SpecialPublications/
Hydrography_2ndEdition_eBook_2010.pdf
 source
2013 version

Reference two
(Hydrography)
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers (2002), HYDROGRAPHIC
SURVEYING, published by American Society of Civil Engineering Press.
Available at the PolyU Library or it is accessible from internet
 References (GPS)

Global Positioning System:

Theory and Practice

Understanding GPS, Principles and

Applications (1996).

Introduction to GPS, the Global

Positioning System (2006). 

GPS Satellite Surveying (2003).

Reference journals & magazines

Geomatica GPS Solutions
GPS World Inside GNSS
J. of Geodesy J. of Navigation
J. of Global Positioning Systems
J. of Surveying Engineering
Navigation, J. of The Institute of Navigation
33
Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal
 www.oceannews.com
http://www.marinetechnologynews.com/

Both
magazines
are free!
34
 A List of Recommended References
 N. Bowditch (1984), American Practical Navigator, Pub. No.9, Defense
Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topgraphic USA. DMA No. NVPUB9Vl.

 E. J. Krakiwsky, G. Lachapelle, and K.P. Schwarz, Assessment of

Emerging Technologies for Future Navigation Systems in the Canadian
Transportation Sectors, 60007, Department of Surveying Engineering,
The University of Calgary.

 H. Moritz and I.I. Mueller (1987), Earth Rotation -- Theory and

Observations, The Ungar Publishing Company, New York

 Extension of Canadian Loran-C Coverage. G. Hamilton, IRRD NO.

291115, Roads and Transportation Association of Canada, Ottawa.

 D.B. Thomson, D.E. Wells, and W.H. Falkenberg (1986), Hydrographic

Surveying, Lecture Notes #10002, Dept Surveying Engineering, The
University of Calgary
 A List of Recommended References
 S.F. Appleyard, R.S. Linford and P.J. Yarwood (1988), Marine
Electronic Navigation, 2nd Edition, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
London. ISBN 0,-7102-1271-2

 Positioning Technique and equipment for U.S. Army Corps

and Engineers hydrographic surveys, U.S. Superintendent of
Documents, 1977, Washington, D.C., The Tides of the Planet
Earth, 2nd Edition, 1983, P. Melchior, Pergamon Press

 G. Bakker, J.C. de Munck, G.L. Strang van Hees (1989), Radio

Positioning at Sea - Geodetic Survey Computations and Least-
squares Adjustment, Delft University Press. ISBN 90-6275-537-
2.

 B. Forssell (1991), Radionavigation systems, Prenctice Hall,

ISBN 0-13-751058-6
 A List of Recommended References

 F.K. Lutgens and E.J. Tarbuck (1995), The Atmosphere -- An

Introduction to Meteorology, 6th Edition, 1995, Prentice Hall.

 P.H. Milne (1983), Underwater Acoustic Positioning System. E &

F.N. Spon, London. ISBN 0-419-12100-5.

 I.S. Robinson (1985), Satellite Oceanography -- An Introduction

for Oceanographer and Remote-Sensing Scientists, Ellis Horwood
Series on Marine Science.

 A.E. Ingham (1992), Hydrography for the Surveyor and Engineer,

3rd Edition, BSP Professional Books, Oxford.
International Organizations/Associations

(1)
http://www.iho.int (publishes the International Hydrographic Review)

(2)

http://www.hydrographicsociety.org/ (publishes the The Hydrographic Journal)

(3)
http://www.oceanicengineering.org/

(4)
https://www.fig.net/commission4/
 HK Government Agency

Hydrographic Office (HO) of

the Marine Department,
Government of HKSAR

http://www.hydro.gov.hk/main.htm

http://www.mardep.gov.hk/
The Marine Department,
Government of HKSAR
http://www.mardep.gov.hk/

39
 HK Government Agency
 Navigational safety. Hydrographic Office (HO) of the Marine
Department is responsible for surveying Hong Kong waters and
producing nautical charts for mariners
 Notices to Mariners. In compliance with the standards of the
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the HO
promulgates fortnightly Notices to Mariners to update the
bilingual nautical charts as well as the Electronic Navigational
Charts.
 DGPS Service. It also broadcasts continually on 289 kHz DGPS
correction signal for mariners using DGPS receiver to fix the
position.
 Tidal Prediction Service. Real-time tidal information of 14 tide
gauge stations along the coastline are available on the website
at https://tide1.hydro.gov.hk/hotide/en/index.php
 Tide Stream Prediction Service.
https://current.hydro.gov.hk/en/map.html 40
HK Government Agency

https://tide1.hydro.gov.hk/hotide/en/index.php 41
 HK Government Agency
 Tide Stream Prediction Service.
https://current.hydro.gov.hk/en/map.html

42
 Introduction to Hydrography
Hydro-: A prefix that means: "water"

-graphy: a combining form denoting a process or form

of drawing, writing, representing, recording, describing,
etc., or an art or science concerned with such a process:
biography; choreography; geography; orthography;
photography.

hydrography /haɪˈdrɒgrəfi/: the science of the

measurement, description, and mapping of the surface
waters of the earth, with special reference to their use
for navigation.

43
source
 IHO Definition
by International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)
• “Hydrography is the branch of applied sciences
which deals with the measurement and
description of the physical features of oceans,
seas, coastal areas, lakes and rivers, as well as
with the prediction of their change over time,
for the primary purpose of safety of navigation
and in support of all other marine activities,
including economic development, security and
defence, scientific research, and environmental
protection”.
44
 IHO Definition
• In addition to supporting safe and efficient
navigation of ships, hydrography underpins
almost every other activity associated with the
sea, including:
- resource exploitation - fishing, minerals,..
- environmental protection and management
- maritime boundary delimitation
- national marine spatial data infrastructures
- recreational boating
- maritime defence and security
- tsunami flood and inundation modeling
- coastal zone management
- tourism
- marine science
45
 Principal objective of hydro surveys
• The principal objective:
– obtain basic data for compilation of nautical
charts with emphasis on the features that may
affect safe navigation

source 46
 Specific objectives of hydro surveys
• To collect data about:
– tide and currents
– depths and horizontal positions in the areas of
interest;
– sea bottom composition
– shoreline configuration;
– physical properties of water column
• To process the collected data to create an
organized database to produce:
– thematic maps
– nautical charts
– other types of documents 47
 Tasks of hydro surveys
• Data Acquisition:
– Horizontal Positioning (of the echosounder on survey
vessel)
– Measurement of water depth with respect to a
reference surface
• Measuring water depth using instruments on the
vessel
• Measuring the level of water surface (i.e. tide) in
order to reduce the measured depths to a
reference datum
– Measurement of other parameters, like tide, current,
seabed properties
• Data Management
• Data Visualization – paper chart production (now almost
replaced by electronic charts) 48
 Characteristics of Hydro Surveys
(vs Land Surveys)
• Working in a dynamic environment/platform
• Less redundant measurements – quality control
and accuracy estimation are critical
• Normally in 2D+1D system, i.e., horizontal
positioning + depth measurement
• Mostly use acoustic (sound) signal as measuring
medium because light and electromagnetic
signals hardly penetrate to water

49
Three Types of Hydrography
Coastal
hydrography

source

Off-shore
hydrography
source source

Oceanic
hydrography
50
source
 Coastal hydrography
• Concerned with
– the development of ports and harbors, coastal
erosion problems, utilization of harbor and coastal
conservation services and, especially, the safety of
navigation in coastal waters.

Graveyard of Ships, Australia source

51
 Off-shore hydrography
• Concerned with:
– the provision of hydrographic data as an
extension of the coastal zone normally
encompasses the continental shelf
– the development of mineral deposits, including
hydrocarbons
– provision of data for fisheries management

52
 Off-shore hydrography
Today, there are 600+ offshoreFloating in 2,438 meters
in operation. One of the world's of water. It is operated
deepest hubs is currently by Royal Dutch Shell and
the Perdido in the Gulf of was built at a cost of $3
Mexico billion

53
Off-shore hydrography
April 10, 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill at the
the Gulf of Mexico. Spilled 4.9 million barrels

source 54
 Oceanic hydrography
• Oceanic hydrography
– concerned with the acquisition of hydrographic
data in the deep ocean areas for the depiction of
sea-floor geomorphology

source 55
 Three Major User Groups

• Mariners for marine transportation

(80% of international trade is carried
by sea)
• Coastal managers for coastal zone
management
• Resource companies for exploration
and exploitation of undersea resources
(oil and gas, mineral)
56
Take a break!

57
 Outline
• Introduction to Hydrographic Surveying
• Tide
1. Earth motion (rotation & revolution)
2. Moon motion (rotation & revolution)

58
 Objectives
• Tell how the tide is generated
• Understand the motion characteristics of the
Moon, Earth and Sun
• Understand their impact on tide
• Understand the tide characteristics

59
 Questions

What is new moon?

What is full moon?
 Moon Revolution: Phases
• Moon’s Phases 1 Moon’s Phases 2
• The “dark side” doesn’t mean it is always dark.
• In fact, the “dark side” is illuminated and the “near side” is dark,
when it is at the new moon phase.

The Moon Phase Images for any date and time [1800-2199 A.D]. was available at:
http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/vphase.html

source 61
 Question
• What causes the four seasons on the
Earth?
 Earth rotation & revolution

source source 63
Movement of the Earth, Moon and Sun -->
Tide
• High tide: tide reaches the highest level, or crest of
the wave reaches the highest level
• Low tide: is the lowest part of the wave, or its trough.
• Tidal range: the height difference between the high
tide and the low tide

source

64
 Why Tide?
• Tide information and knowledge is needed for:
• Safe navigation
• Effective oil and hazardous material spill
response
• Efficient search and rescue.
• Improved environmental management
• The development of quality-assured tidal
predictions is a complicated matter
• Comprehensive knowledge and experience of tidal
theory and practice are absolute prerequisites.
---International Hydrographic Organization 65
 Look: what is a tide (video)

66
http://www.freespiritart.com/weirs-storm-tide.php
 What is Tide?
• Tides include many kinds: Earth tide,
ocean tide, atmospheric tide, etc.
• Usually, the ocean tide is simply called
tide.
• In this course, only the ocean tide is our
major concern.

67
 Ocean Tide vs. Solid Earth Tide
• Everybody is familiar with the ocean tide.
• What is less well known is other tides, e.g.
solid Earth tide.
• Solid Earth tide is also called Earth tide,
crustal tide, body tide, bodily tide or land
tide.

68
source
 Ocean Tide vs. Solid Earth Tide
• Solid Earth tide often reaches +/- 20 cm,
and can exceed 30 cm
• Global geodetic networks and GPS carrier
phase precise point positioning must
include the effect of solid earth tide

69
source
 Ocean Tide vs. Solid Earth Tide
• The solid earth tide is a very smooth function
around the Earth. For this reason, differential
positioning systems, such as DGPS, RTK, can
frequently ignore solid earth tide effects

• While ocean tides can be easily measured

relative to the solid Earth, solid earth tides are
easily measured only with satellite systems or
sensitive gravimeters.

70
source
 Solid Earth Tide at two stations
WES2 (outside Boston) vs USN3 (Washington D.C.)

Centimeter

source
 Differential Solid Earth Tide at two stations
WES2 (outside Boston) vs USN3 (Washington D.C.)

Distance between Boston

and Washington DC is
about 630 km.

source
Vertical Solid Earth Tide at Boulder, USA

source
 Another type of tide: Atmospheric Tide
(at tropical and mid-latitude regions)

Pressure fluctuations about a daily mean pressure due to

atmospheric tide.
3 stations along the west coast of India (15.5°N), near the equator in
the Maldive Islands (4.2°N), and in the English Channel (49.2°N)
source
 Atmospheric Tide at Barcelona, Spain

source Barcelona Latitude (41.4°N)

 Atmospheric Tide
• The gravity of the moon acts on the
atmosphere just as it does on the ocean
• But the impact of the moon’s gravity on the
atmosphere is generally insignificant.
• Reason:
– atmosphere and the ocean have different
densities and compressibilities
– lunar gravity is not able to generate significant
waves in the atmosphere.
76
 Atmospheric Tide
• However, cycles of heating by incoming solar
radiation can generate tidal waves in the
atmosphere
• The fluctuations are greater in tropical latitudes,
but it is difficult to observe in the middle
latitudes and the higher latitudes

77
 Tide (Ocean Tide)
• High tide: tide reaches the highest level, or crest of
the wave reaches the highest level
• Low tide: is the lowest part of the wave, or its trough.
• Tidal range: the height difference between the high
tide and the low tide

source

78
 Tide
• Tide can be predicted quite accurately
– See example 1 of North America
– See example 2 of Hong Kong (14 sites)

79
 Tide vs Current
• Tides (a vertical motion): periodic vertical
movements of the water on the earth surface
• Tidal streams or tidal current (a horizontal
motion): periodic horizontal movements of the
water accompanying the rising and falling of the
tide.

80
 Current
• Currents can be classified two types:
– Tidal current (gravitational interactions
between the Sun, Moon, and Earth).
– Non-tidal current (due to winds, differences in
water density, etc), e.g. wind current,
thermohaline circulation current, etc.
– Tidal current is the only type of current that
changes in a very regular pattern and can be
predicted for future dates.
– Tidal current is also called tidal stream in UK
81
 Current
• Nontidal current
– Wind current:
• current is driven by wind at or near the ocean's
surface
– Thermohaline circulation current:
• driven by density differences in water due to
temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline) in
different parts of the ocean.
• It occurs at both deep and shallow ocean levels
and move much slower than tidal or wind current

82
 Total Current & Tide Wave
• Total current (UK calls flow): the combination
of the tidal current (UK also calls tidal stream)
and non-tidal current
• Tidal wave: a combination of tide (vertical
movement of the water) and tidal current
(horizontal movement of the water)
• Tide wave is caused by gravitational
interactions between the Sun, Moon, and
Earth

83
 What causes a tide?

• Cause: change of gravitational pull of

a heavy body (Moon and the Sun) on
the Earth (including the water over
the Earth)

84
 Outline
• Introduction to Hydrographic Surveying
• Tide
1. Earth motion (rotation & revolution)
2. Moon motion (rotation & revolution)

85
 Earth Rotation
• Earth's rotation is the rotation of the Earth
around its own axis.
• As viewed from the North Star (Polaris), the
Earth turns counter-clockwise.
• The period of Earth rotation is a mean solar
day, i.e. 24:00:00 hours. (different from a
sidereal day)

source 86
 Earth Rotation

Sidereal day ( 恒星日 )= 23 hours and 56 minutes,

shorter than Solar day
source 87
 Earth Revolution
• In addition to its own rotation, Earth revolves
around the Sun at the same time.
• 365.25 days to complete one revolution.
• It is this revolution that brings Earth’s seasons.

• The sun is not in

the exact center
of the Earth’s
orbit.

88
source
Earth Revolution

Spring (Vernal)
Equinox 89
source
 Earth Rotation & Zodiac
Scorpio: OCT 24 - NOV 22 Each sign of
Sagittarius: NOV 23 - DEC 22 zodiac represents
Capricorn: DEC 23 - JAN 20
Aquarius: JAN 21 - FEB 19 approximately
Pisces: FEB 20 - MARCH 20 one month.

Taurus

Aries: March 21 - April 20 Leo: JUL 24 - AUG 23

Taurus: APRIL 21 - MAY 21 Virgo: AUG 24 - Sept 23
Gemini: MAY 22 - JUNE 21 Libra: SEPT. 24 - OCT 23
Cancer: JUNE 22 - JULY 23
90
source
 Earth Revolution

source source
91
Earth Revolution

source
92
 Earth rotation & revolution

Sun-Earth
Revolution
plane

93
source
Earth rotation & revolution

source 94
Earth rotation & revolution

source 95
Earth Revolution: Sun’s declination

source 96
 Outline
• Introduction to Hydrographic Surveying
• Tide
1. Earth motion (rotation & revolution)
2. Moon motion (rotation & revolution)

97
 Moon

• Moon is a constant topic in

many beautiful stories in
human history.
• e.g. Chinese Mid-autumn
festival
• 嫦娥奔月
• 海上生明月，天涯共此
时
• 举头望明月，低头思故
• On July 20, 1969, American 乡
former astronaut Neil
Armstrong became the first man
• …… to step onto the
surface of the Moon. He died August 25, 2012.
source 98
Mass (kg)
Moon 7.349e+22
Mass (Earth = 1) 1.2298e-02
Equatorial radius (km) 1,737.4
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 2.7241e-01
Mean density (g/cm3) 3.34
Mean distance from Earth (km) 384,400
Rotational period (days) 27.32166
Revolution/Orbital period (days) 27.32166
Average length of lunar day (days) 29.53059

Mean orbital velocity (km/sec) 1.03

Orbital eccentricity 0.0549
Tilt of axis (degrees, with respect ecliptic) 1.5424
Orbital inclination (degrees, with respect ecliptic) 5.1454
 Moon Rotation & Revolution
• Counter-clockwise Rotation and Revolution (viewing
from the North Pole)
• Moon rotates around its own axis
• Moon revolves around the Earth

• The Moon’s rotation and

revolution directions are same as
Earth’s – counter-clockwise (viewing
from the North Pole)

source 100
 Moon Rotation & Revolution
• The moon has a noticeable effect on the earth in
the form of tides.
• It also affects the motion of the earth.
• The moon does not orbit the center of the earth,
rather, they both revolve around the center of their
masses called barycenter. This is illustrated in the
following animation.

source 101
 Moon Rotation & Revolution
Barycenter: The moon does not orbit the exact center
of the Earth, but a point on a line between the center of
the Earth and the Moon, approximately 1,710 km below
the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses
balance. This point is called Barycenter.

source 102
 Moon Rotation & Revolution
• Moon rotates about its axis and orbits the Earth in the
same amount of time. Moon’s Rotation and Revolution
are synchronous
• Thus, the moon nearly always keeps the same face
turned towards the Earth
• The side of the Moon that faces
Earth is called the near side, and the
opposite side the far side.
• The far side is often called the
"dark side”.
• However, this does not mean the
“dark side” is always dark. “Dark
source side ”is also illuminated by the Sun.
103
Moon Revolution: Phases

source 104
 Moon Revolution: Phases
• We on the Earth see the Moon progress through "phases”

• Moon itself is dark.

• Only the part of the moon
that is illuminated by the
Sun and at the same time
that is inside the dashed
circle can be seen by
people on the Earth
• i.e. the white part that
falls inside the circle in the
figure

source 105
 Moon Revolution: Phases
•
• Thus, different fractions of
the moon are visible at
different times
• The usual names for these
phases are shown
• With the diagram in mind,
you can roughly tell the
time of day or night from
the Moon's shape and
position.
• If a waxing gibbous moon
is directly overhead, then
source
it is about 9 PM. 106
 Moon Revolution: Phases
• Moon’s Phases 1 Moon’s Phases 2
• The “dark side” doesn’t mean it is always dark.
• In fact, the “dark side” is illuminated and the “near side” is dark,
when it is at the new moon phase.

The Moon Phase Images for any date and time [1800-2199 A.D]. can be obtained from:
http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/vphase.html

source 107
Moon Phases in Hong Kong in 2022
(location dependent)

source 108
 Moon Revolution: Period
Toward a star.
Sidereal period

Toward the Sun

Lunar month

Moon’s sidereal month is 27 Earth days, 7 hours and 43.2 minutes, i.e.
27.3217 days. It is defined as average period of the revolution of the Moon
around the Earth with respect to a fixed star.

One lunar month (or say synodic month) is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3
seconds, i.e. 29.5306 days. It is defined as the average period of the
revolution of the Moon around the Earth with respect to the Sun
source 109
 Moon Revolution: Synodic Period
• The Moon's synodic period is the time between
successive recurrences of the same phase
• e.g. between full moon and full moon
• or from new Moon to next new Moon

• The Moon takes 29.5 days to return to the same

point on the celestial sphere as referenced to
the Sun because of the motion of the Earth
around the Sun; this is called a synodic month or
lunar month.

source 110
 Moon Revolution: orbit plane

Because the Moon rotation inclination is so small

(1.5424 deg), the moon doesn’t have obvious seasons.
111
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/4726/Planes-of-the-ecliptic-the-lunar-equator-and-the-lunar
 Solar Eclipses
• A solar eclipse occurs:
(1) when the Moon passes
between the Sun and the Earth
(in the same Ecliptic plane), and
(2) when it is a new moon and
the Moon fully or partially
covers the Sun as viewed from a
location on Earth.
1999 total solar eclipse
• At least 2 solar eclipses (and
up to 5) occur in 1 year.
• <= 2 can be total eclipses

source source source

 Lunar Eclipses
• A lunar eclipse occurs when the
Moon passes behind the Earth
so that the Earth blocks the
Sun's rays from striking the
Moon
• This can occur only when the
Sun, Earth, and Moon are
Lunar Eclipse of aligned exactly (in the same
June 15, 2011 ecliptic plane and in the same
line), or very closely so, with
the Earth in the middle
source source source 113
 Lunar Eclipses
• Hence, a lunar eclipse can
only occur the night of a full
moon.

• The type and length of an

eclipse depend upon the
Lunar Eclipse of
Moon's location relative to
June 15, 2011 its orbital nodes.

source source source 114

 Lunar Eclipses

• Unlike a solar
eclipse, which can
only be viewed
from a certain
relatively small
area of the world,
a lunar eclipse
1999 total eclipse may be viewed
from anywhere on
the night side of
the Earth.
Lunar Eclipse of June 15, 2011 source source 115
 Lunar Eclipses

• A lunar eclipse
lasts for a few
hours
• a total solar
eclipse lasts for
only a few minutes
at any given place,
1999 total eclipse due to the smaller
size of the moon's
shadow.

Lunar Eclipse of June 15, 2011 source source 116

 Lunar Eclipse & Solar Eclipse

• Q: We have a new Moon and one full

moon every month. Does this mean that
we have two eclipses every month?
source 117
 Lunar Eclipse & Solar Eclipse
• We have a new Moon and one full moon every month, but
we don’t have two eclipses every month.
•This is because the moon is NOT in the same plane as the
Earth-Sun (ecliptic plane) or because the Moon is on the
same ecliptic plane (at the two node points) but the Moon is
NOT in the same line of Earth-Sun.

Lunar eclipse Solar eclipse

118
source source
 Lunar Eclipse & Solar Eclipse
•Usually the Moon passes completely above or
completely below the Earth. This is because the
Moon's orbit about the Earth is tilted about 5.1454
degrees with respect to the Earth's orbit plane (the
ecliptic).

Lunar eclipse Solar eclipse

119
source source
Enjoy a good day!

120