TOPIC 2

THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
 BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON HUMAN
GROWTH AND BEHAVIORS
Human development is a result of the interaction of biological, cognitive,
socio-emotional and ecological processes.

Genetic factors are the basic framework of the biological processes of

development. For example, developments of brain, heart, lungs, nervous
system etc. ; depend largely on the hereditary characteristics of the
individual.

Similarly, changes in the height, weight, sex characteristics are parts of the
biological processes of development..

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There are differences among individuals due to the biological basis of self-
preservation. For example, a child who is physically stronger can overcome
various problems that come across in the growing up than the less physically
strong child.

Similarly, the child who is emotionally stronger and stable can face various
problems in life than the other child.

 Thus, physical as well as emotional strength relates to genetic factors.

Due to the genetic factor some children have the desire to live longer while
other children have the death wish is stronger

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The biological influences are also observed in the needs of the children. For
example, a child needs food when he is hungry, he requires water when he is
thirsty and so on.

 These needs are associated with preservation of one’s life.

 But how these needs are fulfilled depends upon socio-cultural influences.

 The biology of a person is interlinked with his behaviors.

 Thus, both body and mind are interdependent.

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 ...
Physical damage can result in mental problems and mental problems may
affect physical well-being.

As human being lives in a society, with his biological endowments he

interacts with different stimuli of the environment.

Social traditions, culture, beliefs, nationality and others influence human

behavior.

 Both culture and behavior of the individual are inseparable.

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 ...

Thus, human development and behaviors are combination of biological,

social and psychological influences.

For example, a child has talent in mathematics by birth due to hereditary

factor but if the environment does support the child to develop his talent,
the innate ability may not develop properly.

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 STAGES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
 Development is a continuous process.

Human development is described in terms of stages covering the period

from conception to death.

Each stage of development includes a time period during the life span
and has its own characteristics and a specific rate of development.

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 ...

But people vary with respect to time and rate of development

from one stage to another.

Even though there is no consensus on classification of various

stages of development, the human life span can be divided into
eight developmental stages:

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...

8 developmental stages:

1. The prenatal period (conception to birth)

2. The stage of Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3)
3. The early childhood ( 3 to 6 years)
4. The middle childhood ( 6 to 11 years)
5. The period of Adolescence (11 years to about 20 years)
6. Young Adulthood (20 to 40 years)
7. Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
8. Late Adulthood ( 65 years and above)

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 ASSIGNMENT

Discuss each stage of development

 ...
Early experience of the child is more important than later experience,
Therefore, if the proper experiences are not provided to the child at the right
time, development process may get affected.

Developmental psychologists have observed that there are critical periods of

development.

The impact of appropriate stimulation during that period is optimal in

specific kinds of behavior than prior or later to that period.

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 ...
Several studies have been conducted on animals ( K. Lawrenz, 1937;
Harry Harlow, 1978) and later on human beings to see whether there are
critical periods on human development.

It has been observed that first six months are critical period for health,
emotional and social development of the child.

Although some other research studies reveal the adverse experiences in

early childhood can be mitigated (amended) to a certain extent in the
later stage of life (Wang et al., 2010).

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Theories of Human Development

1) ERIKSON MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

(psychosocial development stages)

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 1. ERIKSON MODEL OF
DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a German born psychoanalyst, a pioneer in
a life span perspective.

Erikson’s (1950, 1982) theory of psychosocial development covers eight

stages across the life span.

Socioemotional processes involve changes in the individual's relationships

with other people, changes in personality and emotions.

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 ...

Erikson's psychosocial theory states that the primary motivation for

human behaviour is social and, reflects a desire to affiliate with other
people.

Erikson views development as a lifelong process consisting of a unique

developmental task that confronts individual with a crisis that requires
resolution.

 Failure to do so would result in possible negative outcomes in

adulthood.

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 ...

As Erikson mentioned different stages of human development, crisis is very typical
of each stage and resolution of it is a must.

 Resolution requires balancing a positive trait and a corresponding negative trait.

 Those who can not resolve this crisis may become repressed.

 Both are required for healthy development.

 If either of the two predominates, there will be imbalance and the conflict
remains.

 Hence, the development of ego suffers.

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 Erikson's 8 stages of human development:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0 - 1 year)

• In this stage, the infant is learning to trust others and the world.

• Trust is established when babies are given adequate and consistent

warmth, loving touch and physical care.

• However, mistrust can develop if inadequate, inconsistent care is

given by cold, indifferent and rejecting parents.

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2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 years)

• Autonomy is the independence developed when toddlers are

encouraged by their parents to do things by themselves (e.g. putting
on shoes) versus the shame and doubt if the caregiver were to
reprimand the child for not being able to do the task promptly.

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 ...

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3- 5 years)

• This is an extension of the second stage where, initiative develops

when the pre-school-going child is encouraged to explore and take on
new challenges versus the guilt that the child may experience if the
parents criticize, prevent play or discourages asking questions.

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 ...

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - 12 years)

• This is in the context of primary school where the child is supported

or praised by teachers for doing for productive activities versus the
inferiority that may occur if the child's efforts are regarded as
inadequate or messy.

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...

5. Identity vs. Role confusion (12 - 18 years)

• The teenage years involve the need to establish a consistent

personal identity versus role confusion where the adolescence is
unsure of the direction he is heading.

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6.Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 – 40 years)

• In this stage, intimacy develops when the individual begins

establishing mature relationships with friends, family and eventually a
lover or a spouse as he or she has the ability to care for others and
sharing experiences with them.

• However, isolation develops when the individual is deemed as a loner

and uncared for in his or her life.

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...

• There is a relationship between this stage and the first stage which
was trust vs. mistrust.

• For example, if an infant receives consistent tender loving care from

the caregivers, trust would be developed and thus this would likely
lead to the individual developing functional relationships in his adult
life and vice versa, if the infant developed mistrust in his first year of
life due to neglect from caregiver, there is a likelihood that the
individual might end up being solitary in adulthood.

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7. Generativity vs Stagnation (40 – 65 years)

• Generativity refers to the interest in guiding the next generation in

terms of passing on values and traditions versus stagnation where the
individual is only concerned with their individual needs and thus
values are lost.

• Examples would be those who are single and/or married without

children.

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...

8. Integrity vs. despair ( 65yrs

onwards)
Integrity occurs when the individual reflects upon life and has no
regrets as they have lived a rich and responsible life versus despair
where the individual views previous life events with regrets and
experiences heartache and remorse.

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...

2) Piaget's Stages of
Cognitive
Development

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 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive
Development
 Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896

According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of

four critical stages of cognitive development.

 Each stage is marked by shifts in how kids understand the world.

Piaget believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively
try to explore and make sense of the world around them.

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Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory
of intellectual development that included four distinct stages:

1) The sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2

2) The preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7

3) The concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11

4) The formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and

spans into adulthood.
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 1) The Sensorimotor Stage (1-2
years)
During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects.

His observations of his daughter and nephew heavily influenced his

conception of this stage.

At this point in development, a child's intelligence consists of their basic

motor and sensory explorations of the world.

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 ...

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object

constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when
they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of
development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they
have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children
are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

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 2. The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

• At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle
with logic and taking the point of view of other people.

• They also often struggle with understanding the ideal of

constancy.

• Thinking in this stage is still egocentric.

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 3.The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

Kids at this point of development begin to think more logically, but

their thinking can also be very rigid.

 They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

At this point, children also become less egocentric and begin to think
about how other people might think and feel.

Kids begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and
that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and
opinions.
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 4. The Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the

ability to use deductive (logical) reasoning, and an understanding of
abstract ideas.

At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential

solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.

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