ADVANCED DIGITAL

COMMUNICATIONS
Lecture #6: Baseband Communications Part 2
Signal Space
 N-dimensional orthonormal space characterized by N
linearly independent basis function {ψj(t)}, where:

T  1 if i  j
 0
 i (t ) j (t ) dt  
 0 if i  j

 From a geometric point of view, each ψj(t) is mutually

perpendicular to each of the other {ψj(t)} for i not equal
to j.
Signal Space
 Representation of any set of M energy signals { si(t) }
as a linear combinations of N orthogonal basis
functions where N  M.
N
0  t  T
si (t )   aij j (t ) 
j 1 i  1,2,..., M
 where:
T  i  1,2,..., M
aij   si (t ) j (t ) dt 
0
 j  1,2,..., N
Signal Space
 Therefore we can represent set of M energy signals
{si(t) } as:

si  (ai1 , ai 2 , ....... aiN ) i  1,2,..., M

 Waveform energy:
T T N N
Ei   s (t ) dt   [ aij (t ) j (t )] 
2
i
2
 ij (t )
a 2
0 0
j 1 j 1
 Schematic example of a signal space
 2 (t )
s1  (a11 , a12 )

 1 (t )

s 3  (a31 , a32 )

s 2  (a21 , a22 )

s1 (t )  a11 1 (t )  a12 2 (t )  s1  (a11 , a12 )

Transmitted signal
alternatives
s2 (t )  a21 1 (t )  a22 2 (t )  s 2  (a21 , a22 )
s3 (t )  a31 1 (t )  a32 2 (t )  s 3  (a31 , a32 )
 A vector View of Signals and
Noise
Question 1: Why use orthonormal functions?
 In many situations N is much smaller than M. Requiring few matched
filters at the receiver.

 Easy to calculate Euclidean distances

 Compact representation for both baseband and passband systems.

Question 2: How to calculate orthonormal functions?

 Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure.

Examples
Examples
Generalized One Dimensional Signals

 One Dimensional Signal Constellation

Generalized One Dimensional Signals

 Binary Baseband Orthogonal Signals

 Binary Antipodal Signals

 Binary orthogonal Signals

10
Constellation Diagram
 Is a method of representing the symbol states of modulated
bandpass signals in terms of their amplitude and phase
 In other words, it is a geometric representation of signals
 There are three types of binary signals:
 Antipodal

 Two signals are said to be antipodal if one signal is the

negative of the other  s1 (t )   s0 (t )
 The signal have equal energy with signal point on the
real line
Constellation Diagram
 ON-OFF
 Are one dimensional signals either ON or OFF with
signaling points falling
 on the real line
 With OOK, there are just 2 symbol states to map onto the
constellation space
 a(t) = 0 (no carrier amplitude, giving a point at the
origin)
 a(t) = A cos wct (giving a point on the positive horizontal
axis at a distance A from the origin)
Constellation Diagram
 Orthogonal
 Requires a two dimensional geometric representation
since there are two linearly independent functions s1(t)
and s0(t)
 Typically, the horizontal axis is taken as a reference for
symbols that are Inphase with the carrier cos wct, and the
vertical axis represents the Quadrature carrier component,
sin wct
Error Probability of Binary Signals
 Recall:
 a1  a0 
PB  Q 
 2 0 
where we have replaced a2 by a0.
 To minimize PB, we need to maximize:
a1  a0
0
or
(a1  a0 ) 2
 20
Error Probability of Binary Signals
 We have
(a1  a0 ) 2 Ed 2 Ed
 
 20 N0 / 2 N0
 where Ed is the energy difference, therefore,

a1  a0 1 (a1  a0 ) 2 1 2 Ed Ed
 2
 
2 0 2  0 2 N0 2 N0

 The probability of bit error is given by:

 Ed 
PB  Q 

 2N 0 
Error Probability of Binary Signals
 Ed is given by 2
T
Ed   s1 (t )  s0 (t ) dt
0
T 2 T 2 T
  s1 (t ) dt   s0 (t ) dt  2 s1 (t ) s0 (t )
0 0 0

 Recall that each of the first two terms represents the energy
associated with a bit, Eb; that is,
T T
Eb   s1 (t ) dt   s0 (t ) dt
2 2

0 0

0 Unipolar ( s0 (t )  0)
T 

0 1 0
s (t ) s (t ) dt   Eb Antipodal ( s0 (t )   s1 (t ))
0 Orthgonal ( s0 (t )  s1 (t ))

 The probability of bit error for antipodal signals:

 2 Eb 
PB  Q 

 N0 
 The probability of bit error for orthogonal signals:

 Eb 
PB  Q 

 N 0 
 The probability of bit error for unipolar signals:

 Eb 
PB  Q 

 2 N 0 
due to S o (t )  0
Comparing BER Performance
 Bipolar signals require a factor of 2 increase in energy compared to
orthogonal signals
 Since 10log102 = 3 dB, we say that bipolar signaling offers a 3 dB better
performance than orthogonal
 Comparing BER Performance

For Eb / N 0  10dB
PB ,orthogonal  9.2 x10  2
PB , antipodal  7.8x10  4
 For the same received signal to noise ratio, antipodal provides lower bit
error rate than orthogonal
Relation Between SNR (S/N) and
Eb/N0
 In analog communication the figure of merit used is the average signal
power to average noise power ration or SNR.

 In the previous few slides we have used the term Eb/N0 in the bit error
calculations. How are the two related?

 Eb can be written as STb and N0 is N/W. So we have:

Eb STb S W 
   
N 0 N / W N  Rb 
 Thus Eb/N0 can be thought of as normalized SNR.

 Makes more sense when we have multi-level signaling.

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
 ISI in the detection process due to the filtering
effects of the system
 Overall equivalent system transfer function
H ( f )  Ht ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )
 creates echoes and hence time dispersion
 causes ISI at sampling time

z k  sk  nk    i si
ik
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
 Baseband system model
x1 x2
zk
xk  Tx filter Channel r (t ) Rx. filter x̂k 
ht (t ) hc (t ) hr (t ) Detector
t  kT
T Ht ( f ) Hc ( f ) Hr ( f )
x3 T n(t )

 Equivalent model
x1 x2
Equivalent system zk
xk  z (t ) x̂k 
h(t ) Detector
t  kT
T H( f )
x3 T nˆ (t )
filtered noise
H ( f )  Ht ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )
Nyquist Bandwidth Constraint
 Nyquist bandwidth constraint:
 The theoretical minimum required system bandwidth to
detect Rs [symbols/s] without ISI is Rs/2 [Hz].
 Equivalently, a system with bandwidth W=1/2T=Rs/2 [Hz]
can support a maximum transmission rate of 2W=1/T=Rs
[symbols/s] without ISI.

1 Rs Rs
 W   2 [symbol/s/Hz]
2T 2 W
 Bandwidth efficiency, R/W [bits/s/Hz] :
 An important measure in DCs representing data throughput
per hertz of bandwidth.
 Showing how efficiently the bandwidth resources are used
by signaling techniques.
Ideal Nyquist Pulse (filter)
Ideal Nyquist filter Ideal Nyquist pulse
H( f ) h(t )  sinc(t / T )
T 1

0 f  2T  T 0 T 2T t
1 1
2T 2T
1
W
2T
Ideal Nyquist pulse (filter)
Nyquist pulses (filters)
 Nyquist pulses (filters):
 Pulses (filters) which results in no ISI at the sampling time.
 Nyquist filter:
 Its transfer function in frequency domain is obtained by
convolving a rectangular function with any real even-
symmetric frequency function
 Nyquist pulse:
 Its shape can be represented by a sinc(t/T) function
multiply by another time function.
 Example of Nyquist filters: Raised-Cosine filter
Pulse shaping to reduce ISI
 Goals and trade-off in pulse-shaping
 Reduce ISI
 Efficient bandwidth utilization
 Robustness to timing error (small side lobes)
The raised cosine filter
 Raised-Cosine Filter
 A Nyquist pulse (No ISI at the sampling time)

1 for | f | 2W0  W

2   | f | W  2W0 
H ( f )  cos   for 2W0  W | f | W
  4 W  W0 
0 for | f | W
cos[2 (W  W0 )t ]
h(t )  2W0 (sinc( 2W0t ))
1  [4(W  W0 )t ]2
where W0=Nyquist bandwidth (1/2T) W  W0
r 
W= Absolute bandwidthRoll-off factor W0
Excess bandwidth: W  W0 0  r  1
The Raised cosine filter – cont’d
| H ( f ) || H RC ( f ) | h(t )  hRC (t )
1 r 0 1

r  0.5
r 1
0.5 0.5
r 1 r  0.5
r 0

1  3 1 0 1 3 1  3T  2T  T 0 T 2T 3T
T 4T 2T 2T 4T T

Rs
Baseband W SSB (1  r ) Passband W DSB (1  r ) Rs
2
Pulse shaping and equalization to
remove ISI
No ISI at the sampling time

H RC ( f )  H t ( f ) H c ( f ) H r ( f ) H e ( f )
 Square-Root Raised Cosine (SRRC) filter and Equalizer

H RC ( f )  H t ( f ) H r ( f )
Taking care of ISI
H r ( f )  H t ( f )  H RC ( f )  H SRRC ( f ) caused by tr. filter

1
He ( f )  Taking care of ISI
Hc ( f ) caused by channel
Example of pulse shaping
Square-root Raised-Cosine (SRRC) pulse shaping
Amp. [V]

Baseband tr. Waveform

Second pulse

t/T
First pulse
Third pulse

Data symbol
Example of pulse shaping …
 Raised Cosine pulse at the output of matched filter
Amp. [V]

Baseband received waveform at

the matched filter output
(zero ISI)

t/T
 Eye pattern
 Eye pattern: Display on an oscilloscope which sweeps the
system response to a baseband signal at the rate 1/T (T symbol
duration)
Distortion
due to ISI
Noise margin
amplitude scale

Sensitivity to
timing error

Timing jitter
time scale
 Equalization

Step 1 – waveform to sample transformation Step 2 – decision making

Demodulate & Sample Detect

z (T ) m̂i
r (t ) Threshold
Frequency Receiving Equalizing
comparison
down-conversion filter filter

For bandpass signals Compensation for

channel induced ISI

Received waveform Baseband pulse

Baseband pulse Sample
(possibly distored)
(test statistic)
Equalization
 ISI due to filtering effect of the communications
channel (e.g. wireless channels)
 Channels behave like band-limited filters

j c ( f )
Hc ( f )  Hc ( f ) e

Non-constant amplitude Non-linear phase

Amplitude distortion Phase distortion

Received Pulse Exhibiting
Distortion
 Equalization
 Baseband system model
a1
 a  (t  kT ) Tx filter
k Channel r (t ) Equalizer Rx. filter z (t ) z k âk 
k ht (t ) hc (t ) he (t ) hr (t ) Detector
t  kT
Ta a Ht ( f ) Hc ( f ) He ( f ) Hr ( f )
2 3
n(t )

 Equivalent model
H ( f )  Ht ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )
a1
Equivalent system zk âk 
 a  (t  kT )
k
h(t )
z (t ) x(t ) Equalizer z (t )
k he (t ) Detector
t  kT
Ta a H( f ) He ( f )
2 3 nˆ (t )
filtered noise
nˆ (t )  n(t )  hr (t )
Equalization
 Equalization using
1. MLSE (Maximum likelihood sequence estimation)
2. Filtering
 Transversal filtering
 Zero-forcing equalizer
 Minimum mean square error (MSE) equalizer
 Decision feedback
 Using the past decisions to remove the ISI contributed by them
 Adaptive equalizer
Assignment #1
 A Detailed Explanation of Equalization using filters
Assignment #2
 Design of AM modulator and demodulator using
Multisim or any other electronics simulator
Assignment #3
 Design a low pass filter using Matlab
 Show both time and frequency domain of filter
response and input signals
 Prefer not to use built in functions.