Review Notes in Crim Part 8

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REVIEW NOTES IN CRIMINAL

SOCIOLOGY, ETHICS & HUMAN
RELATIONS
Part 8
HOSTAGE SITUATION
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Commit your way to the LORD;

trust also in him; and he shall
bring it to pass.
Psalm 37:5

REVIEW NOTES IN CRIMINAL SOCIOLOGY, ETHICS & HUMAN RELATIONS
HOSTAGE SITUATION
This is termed as crisis by the law enforcement officers and

behavioral professionals. This situation exist when one or more
individuals are held captive by other person or persons against
their will for purposes of demanding material things or due to
behavioral maladies. Criminal type hostage takers may direct
their demand towards the government or to other private
individuals. Mentally or emotionally disturbed may take
hostages out of nothing or due to uncontrollable forces.

In dealing with hostage situations, the priorities are to 1) preserve lives, 2)

apprehend the captors, and 3) recover or protect properties. Negotiators
should be prepared for this kind of situation since it will take them a long
period of time to contain the situation. According to experts, a hostage
taking may last for an hour to more than forty hours. Hostage takers and
hostages and even the negotiators become tired and stressed out of the
long period of crisis intervention. Hostages become impatient waiting for
their safe release or rescue. With this, there is a great possibility of the
birth of the Stockholm’s Syndrome. This is characterized by transference
of attention between the captors and captives. The hostage towards his
captors may generate positive feelings.

Negotiators can have enough time to contain and isolate the scene. The
initial state of high emotion is given time to subside and rational thinking to
return. The lives of the hostages become more secure as the holder realizes
the value of their continued safety; and fatigue will set in and alertness will
fade.
It was research by experts that passage of time is in favor of the hostages

and to the negotiators. In the first hour of the situation, the hostage taker is
at rage and tension is at peak. As time passes mental, emotional and
physical fatigue will be increased and will operate against the hostage taker.
As this happen, the above-enumerated benefits of slowing time operate.

STAGES OF A HOSTAGE SITUATION
Alarm Stage - This stage is the most traumatic and dangerous. In

the alarm stage, the emotion of the hostage taker is exceedingly
in its highest peak, his rationalization and proper thinking is low,
He may be extremely aggressive in his reaction to any perceived
threat. E.g. escape of hostages, tactical assault, trickery etc.

In order for the perpetrator gain cooperation from the hostages, he usually terrorizes
the hostages into submission. At this stage he may also inclined to inflict physical harm
or even kill anyone who interferes with their attempts. (Strentz, 1984, p. 190). The
same is the situation in the part of the hostages. Since no one knows when or does
not want that they will be held hostages. This is considered as a traumatic stage as
they fear much for their lives. From a peaceful situation, turns into a life and death
situation ticking every minute and the lives of the hostages depend on the hand of the
hostage taker. (Herman, 1995, p. 92). A person taken as hostage becomes impatient,
denial of reality sets in them, particularly when those they expect to help seem to be
doing nothing. In order to cope immediately with this agitated feeling, one must put
into place a will to survive since panic may cause over reaction in the part of the
hostage taker and diminishes the chances of survival. It is also important that hostages
should disregard any notion of being a hero. (Strentz, 1984, p. 196)

Crisis Stage - In this stage, when negotiation attempts are being initiated by the
crisis negotiator. Outrageous demands and unpredictable emotion is marked or
commonly noted in the hostage taker. There is still a great deal of danger since
hostage takers try to consolidate their positions. To do these, they try to move
their hostages to a safer ground area. On the part of the captive, this is the
most critical because this stage may predict the remainder of the situation.
Chances of survival may be enhanced or reduced during this stage through the
hostage –hostage taker interaction. It is advisable that hostages must control
their fear as it increases unpredictable outburst of anger and violence on the
captor. The hostage taker may inconsistently enforce numerous demands and
petty rules and this may result to unsuccessful negotiation. In addition, the
perpetrator seeks to destroy the victim’s sense of autonomy by depriving him
of his basic needs.

At this stage hostages may start to feel three (3) problems: 1)

Isolation, 2) Claustrophobia, and 3) Sense of time. Sense of time
becomes important on hostages who are hoping for rescue. This
situation may also in favor of the hostage taker as they earn
compliance from their captives.

Accommodation Stage - This is distinguished by boredom, and with

moments of terror. Though is considered as the longest yet is the
most tranquil. In the crisis stage, and even in the alarm stage,
hostages are considering escape options but in the accommodation
stage, their initiative and planning are narrowed since captors has
increased control over them. The hostages’ sense of life preserving
has increased and even tries to obey the orders. Stockholm’s
syndrome will likely to occur between the captors and the victims.
One looks into this phenomenon in the negative that one must say
that cooperation of hostages to the negotiator is constricted.

In the right manner, the hostages in good effect can make use of
this phenomenon. It lessens tension and openness is generated.
It is advisable that hostages must avoid political discussions as it
accentuates differences with captors and hostages. (Miron and
Goldstein)

Resolution Stage - This is the stage when the hostage taker is being
stressed out or fatigued of the situation. He is seemingly losing interest
of the situation and lost most of his bargaining points. Tension between
the hostages, hostage taker and the crisis negotiator is notably low. It
should be regarded also that the crisis intervention techniques of the
negotiation team have increased. In this stage, reactions of the
hostages are mixed either blaming their captors or may become hostile
and uncooperative to their rescuers and even accusing them to be the
responsible for the whole situation. They might even appraise their
captors for taking care (saving) their lives though their captors placed
them into a hell experience.

Released victims become paranoid and often experience post

trauma attacks after liberation. These may even last for a long
period of time. Such experience becomes part of their lives and
haunts them from time to time if not being properly treated.
They, being a paranoid, continue to monitor their captors if
taken away from them or safely put behind bars.

THE HOSTAGE TAKER
It is a must that a police officer who first arrived at the scene has
the necessary skill to determine what type or personality of the
hostage taker is. This does not mean that he must diagnose the
perpetrator. In assessing the situation, one must be able to
determine and know the two kinds of behavior:

• Instrumental behavior- those who are engaging in this kind of

behavior are having goals to obtain or to be fulfilled. Generally,
hostage takers of instrumental behavior are criminal types and
intervention usually needs bargaining. E.g. barricaded criminals,
or other organized crime groups.
• Expressive behavior- This kind of behavior is characterized by

their attempt to display power. Those who engage in this kind
are emotionally disturbed individuals. E.g. mentally insane, etc.

In many hostage situations committed, statistics reveals that

most of those involve are mentally disturbed individuals and the
remaining are results of instrumental behaviors. According to
research, twenty five (25%) percent of all hostage situations are
instigated by expressive acts. With this data, it is important that
we must learn the different types of hostage takers and we will
begin with the emotional aspect.

Mentally Disturbed
This group suffers from different kinds of psychological maladies.
They may or may not in touch with reality. A mentally disturbed
individual may be a loner, act in accordance with an non existing
irresistible force, or on a false belief or a stimuli (Cooper, 1981).
Symptoms may include such things as dramatic and sudden changes
of behavior, loss of memory, mistreatment of a loved one, a sudden,
impulsive act of theft, extreme depression, or anxiety that is out of
proportion to the circumstances that appear to be causing the
anxiety.

The individual may talk to himself of hear voices, or he may be

displaying dangerous behavior without any apparent reason.
Mentally or emotionally disturbed individual may be in a very
docile mood for a while and become extremely violent without
any apparent cause (Adams).

A patrol officer is usually the first person to respond to a crisis

situation before the crisis team arrives. In some instances where
Crisis Management Teams (CMT) are not available, he usually
starts and event finalizes the job. Police officers are empowered
to bring the mentally and emotionally disturbed individuals to
the psychiatrist for evaluation and treatment.

Paranoid Schizophrenics
To begin with the different kinds of mental disorder, we must

first understand the different topics associated with this. Below
are items of information discussed in the book of Adams that
serve as a guide to a police officer who will respond to a hostage
situation involving mentally disturbed.

Psychosis is a gross and persistent falsification of conventional

reality that leaves the person unable to manage conventional
reality with any degree of effectiveness. Psychosis has two major
components.
Delusion is the faulty belief that is motivated primarily by the

individual’s needs and wishes and in fact, has no basis.
Hallucination is manifested in a visual image that is quite vivid
and real to the individual who experiences it.

Paranoia is a set of fixed delusional beliefs that are accompanied by clear

and orderly thinking outside the delusion system. Paranoia manifests
itself. A paranoid has been described as “vigilant suspicious, distrustful,
insecure, and chronically anxious”. There are two types of a paranoid
individual as:
The True paranoid or the Classical paranoid as psychologists prefer, may

be of high level of intelligence and so persuasive that he will successfully
recruit other persons to help him in his war against enemy. Individual with
Paranoid Reaction do not handle the problem in as much logic or
intelligence as the true paranoid.

Schizophrenia is a thinking disorder. Expert says that,

approximately 80 percent of the mentally ill of the population
are schizophrenic. There are subcategories of this kind of mental
disorder, the catatonic state and the hebephrenic state.
Catatonic state is demonstrated by the patient’s rigidly held
position for some interminable period of time, while
Hebephrenic state is when the subject acts childlike and silly.

The signs and symptoms of the schizophrenic condition may appear

in three (3) different ways such as the following:
1. The subject’s language may be rambling and tangential; he may
make up meaningless rhymes, or echo anything he hears;
2. The subject may show his split personality incongruent between
his expressed ideas and emotional responses. This indicates that two
thought operate simultaneously.
3. The subject may isolate or alienate himself from the rest of the
society and pull himself into his personal shell (Schizotype
personality).

Neurosis is suffered by a person if most likely to be observed in a

continuous state of anxiety. Erratic behavior would more than
likely be displayed by reaction to anxiety in the form of ego
defense mechanism such as rationalization, projection or
displacement. The signs and symptoms are shaking
uncontrollably and depression without explanation.

In general, they are characterized by being out of touch with

reality and being recognized by their false belief. Hostage taking
is done in order for them to carry out plans from someone who
compels them to do. Their routine is to accomplish something
but there is no accomplishment. Most of the paranoid
schizophrenics are in conflict and with difficulty in coping even in
a minimal stress situation.

Male paranoid may have problems with gender identity and

religious beliefs. It is so noted that frustration and conflict is
involved. When these two combines, severe anxiety will surface
that makes a person so sensitive and volatile. Lack of
interpersonal trust, religious conviction, sexual disfunction,
persecutory beliefs about family or significant individuals or
even distrust to the negotiator or police may lie in the person’s
behavior. This variety of issues may cause the negotiation
difficult and dangerous (1986).

The first thing a negotiator should do is to keep the dialogue

at an even pace. Since paranoid schizophrenics are out of touch
with reality, it is a must that the hostage taker should be kept
calm enough to stay in touch with reality while the negotiation
process is going on. A good negotiation strategy is suggested
below:
1. Reduce anxiety at the same time create a problem solving

atmosphere

2. Do not trick the captor

3. Accept the statement as true but do not agree
4. Do not convince that he is wrong
5. Emphatic understanding is needed

Manic depressive personality
Depressed individuals are in an incapacitated mental state. He

may frequently know the hostages and the latter might be the
cause of his depression. Negative outlook in life, feeling
unworthy, slow speech, suicidal and unpredictable and
extremely dangerous are the characteristics of this type of
mentally disturbed. To a one who is a suicidal type, he might
inflict harm or even kill one of the hostages and the police will
be forced to shoot him (Strentz, 1984).

When dealing with this kind of mentally disturbed hostage taker,

the negotiator must be:
1. Firm and manipulative

2. Understanding and be supportive
3. Able to induce subject to talk about something positive

Inadequate personality
This is a type of person that displays attention-seeking behavior.

Hostage taking is his action to prove himself or his worth. During the
commission of the crime, he tends to delay his actions and be caught
in flagrante in order for him to prove himself (“I’ll show them”). His
characteristics are homicidal, loser complex, maybe fired from many
jobs and is in touch with reality. Though they are emotionally
disturbed, yet they are apologetic to their behavior (“I’m sorry but I
have to do this to prove that I can be a good worker…”).

The negotiator should be aware that those statements mean

that it’s either murder or physical harm to the hostages. It is but
wise to present problem-solving alternatives so that the hostage
taker will not feel that he has failed again. The person needs
acceptance and understanding. An initial action is to offer
promises that can be kept and do not allow relatives in the
scene.

Anti-social personality
Those who belong to this kind of personality are repeatedly

having conflict with the people around them and notably having
a deviant behavior from groups, social values and or individuals.
They defend their face from embarrassment by blaming others
in the form or rationalization. Anti-socials, when takes hostages,
are generally engages in expressive acts and they are likely to
dehumanize the hostages and this is an indication that they are
dangerous individuals.

According to Lanceley, antisocial individuals did not internalized

moral values yet they know the consequences of their acts and
they are therefore considered or more likely to become a foe.
These hostage takers are only concerned for themselves
indicating egotism. Though they are aware of the consequences
of their acts, they feel no remorse and the negotiator must be
aware of this. At any time the hostage taker may consider his
hostages as burden and might harm or even end killing his
hostages. A guideline of action suggested is that the ego of the
hostage taker is stimulated.

In this situation, the stimulus of this situation might be the

hostages and the negotiator must diverse the attention away
from them. It is also suggested that it is but wise not to refer or
talk about hospitalization or treatment during the crisis
intervention as this might agitate the perpetrator if they believe
they might loose their freedom or is insinuated that they are
crazy. Since the hostage taker is a street and police wise, it is
advisable not to use trickery (Fusilier, 1981).

The estranged person
Domestic problem is the main cause why an estranged individual takes hostages. The
hostages are commonly known to him and mostly are his family members. The
hostage taker is experiencing from relationship breakdown in his or her interpersonal
relationships and hostage taking is employed to compel the relationship to be
maintained. The hostage taker at his point is afraid of loosing the significant others. In
order to carry out hostage-taking, alcohol and prohibited drugs are used to have the
necessary courage (Cooper, pp. 27-28). Knowledge in domestic intervention is
essential when dealing with this kind of volatile situation. The negotiator should be
careful when intervening on personal disputes as oral arguments between the hostage
and the hostage taker may occur.

The negotiator must be an emphatic listener and with good

responding skill. He must also be aware of the personal nature if
the situation. The negotiator should also have the ability to bar
the denial of reality into despair. The resolution is that the
perpetrator needs to be shown a graceful way out (Cooper,
1981).

Terrorists
Terrorism throughout the world has been alarming for the past
decades and even at present. Countries around the world have
been facing terrorism problems either local or international
groups. In the United States alone, it has been reported that
there are local terrorists sowing fear, insecurity and unrest
amongst the people. They create chaos through assassinations,
bombing, arson and other forms of malicious destruction of
properties. (CMD, AFP/PNP)

Though global terrorism is seemingly increasing and alarming,

the international law enforcement community is trying its best
to address to this kind of problem. (The international police
organizations, other law enforcement, religious and civic
organizations team up together in fighting these terrorists.)
Regardless of their cause, their terroristic activities are

condoned by most of the people.

Characteristics, Modus Operandi and Causes
In order for them to attain their goal, careful planning is

involved. They employ professional members [most of the
planning team members are educated enough on political
matters] to outwit and deceive the authorities. They also employ
undercover agents and divide into groups.

Hostages are in serious jeopardy when their demands are

not met immediately or if the military pressure hovers them (i.e
deployment of troops, hovering choppers). The local police may
not be able to meet the demands immediately and only serve as
perimeter security as they need government attention. They use
media to get attention from the government.

Since most of the longest running crisis situation involves

political terrorists, they want to negotiate directly to the
Government and pay less attention to the agents or crisis
management teams. Terrorists also try to let the government
overreact n the situation so when worse come, they, the
hostages and the rights groups will turn ire and blames on the
government.

The common question asked is what causes them to do

such. Evidently, hostage taking is their means to get the much-
needed attention from the government or private individuals
just like other types of hostage takers. In this way, the
authorities will initiate actions to negotiate for the safe release
of the hostages on the fear that the latter will end killed or
harmed.

On the issue on ransom, according to them are just

demanded to cover their expenses while hostages are at their
custody, but in sense, will serve as their resources to buy
additional firepower or in the recruitment for additional
manpower in preparation for the anticipated military or police
pressures.

Just like other types of hostage takers, they need to be

negotiated with . The only difference is that a mentally
deranged, inadequate and antisocial personalities needs more
the help of mental health professionals and rapid police
response as the last resort to rescue hostages away from danger.
While on terrorist hostage takers, painstaking bargaining on
social and political demands is traditionally used. Government
negotiators are utilized to the fullest to negotiate and bargain
issues with the kidnappers.

Barricaded Criminals
This type might be robbers cornered by the police while in the act of committing their
crime (i.e bank robbers). Either barricaded in a building, road block or on getaway
cars. Hostages are may be employees, bystanders or both caught in the process of
escaping. The hostage taking is a spontaneous reactions of the criminal when
cornered. Some law enforcement officers consider barricaded criminals as attention
seekers, but others describe then in the contrary as they avoid being identified. Their
primary aim is to escape safely taking with them the hostages as shield to prevent
being shot by the police. Usually barricaded criminals are engaged in instrumental acts
as they demand for material things such as getaway cars, firearms, money, and safe
escape.

Barricaded criminals may initiate bargaining negotiation as

the police closely monitor them. As earlier presented they might
ask a safe conduct pass for the release of the hostages, or they
might ask for additional money or getaway car and leave the
hostages immediately. The negotiator, upon gathering all the
facts and assessment of the situation, including the mental
faculties, he may use his own discretion in the negotiation
process, whether to grant the demand or not

Prisoners
While most prisoners spend most of their time inside the

correctional institutions, some are concentrated on penal
colonies under tight guards and to those who are completely
secluded inside their prison cells, they are haunted by boredom,
get tired and hostile. These may be due to the strict
implementation of house rules, favoritism and poor prison
conditions (Lack of recreational activities and inadequate
facilities, poor structuring etc.).

These conditions may largely contribute to the occurrence of

riots and crisis [hostage taking] situations in our correctional
institutions. Most probably, the hostages are the prison
authorities and staffs or even some of the inmates. For some
institutionalized individuals, hostage taking is their means of
effecting escape [hostages serve as their shield against assault of
authorities] to stay away from the harsh prison condition.
Another group of prisoner-hostage takers are those who do not
consider escape but a rather total improvement of the
conditions and services of the prison institution.

Prisoners who initiate hostage taking may be involved on either

instrumental or expressive acts or both. Instrumental behavior
involves those situationally related, substantive and objective
wants and commonly known as the commodity goal of the
hostage taker (Roloff and Jordan, 1992). An example of this is
the demand for prison condition as these are the causes of the
situation.

Additionally, the first group almost has similar purpose to the

barricaded criminals as they inhibit instrumental acts or
behaviors.
The negotiation approach in this situation based on the acts

involved is bargaining approach. They need to be bargained with
at the soonest possible time as the lives of the hostages are in
great danger. This is possible, as the hostage taker believes that
the hostages are the main cause of the problem.

NEGOTIATION MODELS In Crisis Situations
Whenever a crisis [hostage] situation is reported to the police or other law

enforcement professionals, the initial action being taken is the activation of tactical
assault or Initial Action team and the coordination of trained crisis negotiators within
their departments. In cases where the hostage taking is initiated by a perpetrator,
purely engaged in expressive acts, the services of a mental health professional trained
in crisis management is indispensable. On cases of instrumental behaviors, tactical
assault teams are mobilized to contain and isolate the area and on standby when
worst come along as the negotiator/s enter the situation. However, the services of
mental health professionals are sought since most of hostage takers with instrumental
behaviors are partially engaged in expressive acts.

In assessing a crisis situation, one must understand and be able to determine the two
kinds of behavior. Firstly, Instrumental behavior refers to actions on the part of the
perpetrators and negotiators that facilitates some types of substantive outcome in terms
of instrumental issues (situationally related, substantive and objective wants of each
party). Additionally, those who are engaging in this kind of behavior are having goals to
obtain or to be fulfilled. Generally, hostage takers of instrumental behavior are criminal
types and intervention usually needs bargaining. E.g. barricaded criminals, or other
organized crime groups. Expressive kind of behavior on the other hand refers to various
forms of perpetrator’s and negotiator’s behavior that serves to communicate the power
or significance of the individual and his/her emotional state. Simply, it involves the
behavior of the perpetrator (Hammer and Rogan). This is characterized by the hostage
taker’s attempt to display power. Those who engage in this kind are mostly emotionally
disturbed individuals. e.g. mentally insane, etc. Over the years there are approaches used
by negotiators and are devised to suit to these kinds of behavior or acts.

Bargaining Negotiation Approach - Earlier discussed were the

two types of acts. Bargaining negotiation approach is the model
that negotiator employ whenever instrumental issues come
along way. In this approach, negotiation is viewed in terms of an
exchange or distribution of resources. This approach is derived
to the social exchange theory of Roloff, (1981), which
accordingly has two premises:

1. Conflicts involve people who are interdependent which means

that each party can not accomplish each own goals without
agreement from each party, and
2. Such conflicts involve rewards and costs from each other
This Social Exchange Theory is obviously focused in the exchange of

objects during the negotiation. In order that the negotiation be
successful, some authors of crisis management books claimed that
the communication approach involve the exchange of one set of
resources for others or known as bargaining.

Bargaining is a powerful tool to resolve a conflict provided that

the hostage takers focus on instrumental concerns or issues that
are negotiable. They are more likely to engage with the hostage
negotiator in order to bargain and resolve the crisis.
Van Zandt, Rogan and Hammer reviewed and made critique on

this approach and notes: “the type of situation law enforcement
usually encounter, often fall in several ways to match the
requirements of instrumental negotiation approach.”

First, crisis negotiation situation is not typically like others, more common
forms of instrumental dominated bargaining where the assumption is that, the
parties come with well thought out proposals and are willing to a bargaining
process. Crisis [hostage] situations involve high levels of anxiety and
uncertainty. They are characterized by a pronounced level of emotional
excitation precipitated by the hostage takers motives and enhanced police
response. Majority of hostage crisis occurs as a result of the mental and
emotional inability of the hostage takers to cope with life stressors. This
produces a situation where normative rational actor bargaining is generally
absent and its place exist an explosive dangerous and volatile set of interaction
dynamics where emotional excitation and relationship issues (e.g. control,
power, trust, liking and face) play a critical role.

Over all, the particular features of crisis situation discussed above suggest
that negotiators often face interaction dynamics that may not fully
explained by the instrumentality focused bargaining approach.
Expressive Negotiation Approach - This approach is mainly focused on

the emotional state of the hostage taker as a powerful tool to resolving of
crisis situation. Expressive negotiation approach came to existence with
the use of psychology, human relations theory and research. Both assume
that the nature and quality of interpersonal relationships play a large role
in resolving a conflict. The three (3) assumptions of the expressive
negotiation model are:

1. Hostage has no instrumental value. This explains that the

hostage is a tool or device used in gathering audiences or
attracting attention (attention-seeking behavior) to the hostage
taker. The hostage taker may initiate a crisis to demonstrate his
ability to control others.
2. Both interactants have the interest to prevent the escalation
of the situation into violence or death. The hostage taker has
some minimal level of awareness that when he kill his hostages,
he will later suffer the consequences.

3. Hostage taker and negotiators are confronted with high level of emotional
excitation. Increased emotional arousal prepares the perpetrator from reacting
with fight or flight response rather than a problem-solving mode.
In this approach, negotiators must be knowledgeable on ‘crisis intervention

therapy’; listening skills as it contributes a lot in decreasing anxiety and a
problem solving can emerge later during the negotiation process. (Schlossberg,
1979, Van Zandt, Rogan and Hammer, 1998). In addition, relationship
development and confidence building strategies are viewed as critical to
resolution of crisis [hostage] incidents. The negotiator must have enough
training in listening, paraphrasing, and self-disclosure, open ended questioning
to reduce perpetrator’s anxiety.

Under intense stress, the Stockholm syndrome may likely to occur. This
phenomenon has been carefully studied and recorded by psychologists. The
impact of the incident stress on negotiator’s psychological well-being. More so
on unsuccessful negotiations. Negotiators should also deserve attention like
professional help. Explications of emotional and personality disorders and their
impact on crisis negotiation. Most of the hostage situations are committed by
paranoids, depressed, antisocial and inadequate personality typologies.
Hostage negotiations depends on the psychological characteristics of the
hostage taker and the identification of the effective communication strategies
when negotiating with perpetrators who exhibit behavioral patterns consistent
with specific mental and emotional disorders. This model of negotiation is used
to lessen the perpetrator’s emotional tension to give way for a rational
problem-solving atmosphere. (Hammer and Rogan)

Communication-based negotiation approach - This approach is

founded on an interactive assessment if the crisis [hostage]
situation as it unfolds and is created through the interaction of
the negotiator and the perpetrator. Therefore, communication-
based approach is an interactive process wherein negotiators
and hostage takers react to each message behavior

In fundamental communications theory, communications is

composed of content and relational dimensions. Content
dimension of communication represents the instrumental focus
of person’s message, while the latter conveys the expressive
features (as trust, power, and respect). There are three (3)
interaction concerns relative to the communication-based
negotiation approach, which may tend to escalate or deescalate
the conflict. (Hammer and Rogan)

1. Instrumental concerns; Hammer and Rogan notes:

“Instrumental message behavior arises in crisis negotiation as
the hostage takers and the negotiators bargain with one another
regarding with the incompatibility of their objective concerns.”
In this concern, there are two broad types of issues involved, the
substantive issues and non-substantive issues or the situationally
related and the situationally unrelated respectively

2. Relational concerns - Relational message behavior denotes

when an individual’s concern is more on the nature of the
relationship to other individual. There are thre-e (3) core
elements that represents relational message behavior.
• Power- this concerns the degree of agreement between the
two interactants along a dominance-submission dimension.
• Trust- revolve around the degree to which each party is
willing to accept the premise that no one shall be hurt or no act
shall be detrimental to self.

• Affiliation- refers to belongingness and acceptance between

the perpetrator and the negotiator (respect, liking and caring for
the well being).
3. Identity concerns - Identity concerns refers to an individual’s

concern for self-presentation, reputation or face. These are then
important to both parties.

According to Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory as discussed by Hammer and Rogan,

personal and social identities are the two dimensions of a person’s self image
and are best to be known by the negotiator when dealing with conflict
situation, noted as:
‘Personal identity is based on an individual’s unique perception of his or her

own attributes’ (The person perceives himself either weak, strong, or
intelligent).Hammer and Rogan also suggested that a suicidal’s emphasis is on
personal identity concerns, and ‘…social identity consists of those
characteristics and their emotional significance that is attached to one’s
membership in social groups...’ (nationality, gender, ethnicity, social group/cult).

Rogan and Hammer further discussed that face message

behavior varies along three (3) dimensions and the first denotes
the locus of a communicator’s interest (is the face message
directed to ones’s self or to other?); Face valence is the second
dimension, a behavior either to attack or honor face. Finally,
‘face-honoring entails a dimension which relates to whether the
message behavior functions to proactively protect against
potential future threats to face or to retroactively restore
perceived loss of face’.

When these three (3) dimensions are combined together, there are six (6)
types of face message behavior being produced:
1. Defend Self’s Face - This behavior is self-honoring and self directed
messages. More often, the hostage taker uses this when he is asked about
the condition of the hostages and replied… (“ I don’t know but I think
they’re all OK! “)
2. Attack Self’s Face - Is a behavior that tends to attack or is directed to
one’s self. The statement, (“ I know this is all my fault…” ) fits to this
behavior. The perpetrator directs criticism or attacks to himself when he
fell remorse of his act and this usually occur during the accommodation
stage.

3. Restore Self’s Face - This is used to restore one’s

face/reputation. (“ I’m not as crazy as you think…”) A hostage
taker with psychological maladies uses this face message
behavior to restore his reputation.
4. Restore Other’s Face - A face message behavior that is
directed towards the other party. (“ You’re such an intelligent
guy…”) or (” You’ve got a lot of people who cares about
you…”)The negotiator tries to restore the perpetrator’s face by
attempting to gain cooperation and lessen the latter’s
psychological burden.

5. Defend Other’s Face - Known as the traditional message behavior utilized

to protect other’s face from future attack or loss. (“ I know you can
overcome these odds in your life…”). The negotiator should defend the
perpetrator and not the hostages to increase sense of worth of the
perpetrator.
6. Attack Other’s Face - This represents the traditional, more limited view of
face attack behaviors. (“ These people causes me to do this…”) When a
negotiator shifts the blame to others, it does not really mean that hostages
are not prime importance. It is more likely that the hostage taker fell sense
of understanding and belongingness. However, if the hostage taker is the
one who uses this, he is trying to imply that the main cause of the situation
are the people involved [hostages].

THE STOCKHOLM SYNDROME

In the event of hostage crisis, the Stockholm syndrome will likely
to occur. This phenomenon is referred to as the process of
transference in which the hostages begin to identify their
captors and the following may occur:
1. Positive feelings from the hostages to the captors
2. Negative feelings toward the authorities by both hostages and
captors
3. Positive feelings returned by the captors to the hostages

This phenomenon got its name after one of the hostages in an

aborted bank robbery in Sweden fell in love with the perpetrator
(Strentz, 1994). In some instances, hostages may even help the
perpetrator consummate the crime either by providing cover fire
during the escape process or actually joining the heist or become an
instant member of the group.
Stockholm syndrome with operates when there is an extended

period of time, not being isolated from one’s captor and the positive
contact between the hostages and the hostage taker (Fuselier, 1981).

Variety of issues may possibly cause the occurrence of this

phenomenon such as:
1. Pity- In the case of mentally disturbed individuals, hostages may
pity them, as they believe these individuals need professional help.
The hostages may offer advises (i.e. not advisable) or even instruct
the police not to launch a tactical assault against the defenseless
and sick hostage taker.
2. Personal feelings- the hostage may feel affection towards the
hostage more when the hostage is female, with pleasing
personality and cooperative.

3. Indoctrination- barricaded political terrorists tend to

indoctrinate their hostages to force them agree and believe with
their stand or political ideology. It is not so surprising that a son
of a slain scout ranger sergeant in Mindanao joined his Abu
Sayyaf captors during the siege in 2000.
4. Poor inaction of the authorities- the hostages in the alarm and

crisis stages of hostage taking want to be speedily rescued
before they will be killed or harmed.

In a crisis [hostage] situation, negotiators consider staling of

time the number one rule in dealing with hostage crisis. On
scene negotiators stale time to decrease tension among
themselves and the hostage taker. This might be misinterpreted
by the hostages as they feel neglected. They will end up
sympathizing with their captors and uncooperative to their
rescuers.

It should be corrected that providing assistance to the hostage taker not a

conclusion that Stockholm syndrome has occurred. Hostages may carry the
moneybag or the clerk opens the vault due to continue threat of the hostage taker.
As Stockholm syndrome continue to develop among the hostages and their

captors, the latter will make increase awareness of the safety of the hostages for
fear of losing a shield. The negotiators and the hostages however may benefit from
this phenomenon since the safety of the hostages is increased. This happens
during the accommodation period as hostages may tend to obey every command
of their captors and the latter will decrease or lessen the degree of security, control
and the introduction of physical harm among the hostages.

I can do all things through

Christ who strengthens me.
Philippians 4:13
REVIEW NOTES IN CRIMINAL

SOCIOLOGY, ETHICS & HUMAN
RELATIONS
Part 8
HOSTAGE SITUATION

Review Notes in Crim Part 8

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TEACHER LUMABAN ONLINE REVIEW

REVIEW NOTES IN CRIMINAL

TEACHER LUMABAN YOUTUBE CHANNEL

Commit your way to the LORD;

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This is termed as crisis by the law enforcement officers and

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In dealing with hostage situations, the priorities are to 1) preserve lives, 2)

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It was research by experts that passage of time is in favor of the hostages

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STAGES OF A HOSTAGE SITUATION

Alarm Stage - This stage is the most traumatic and dangerous. In

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At this stage hostages may start to feel three (3) problems: 1)

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Accommodation Stage - This is distinguished by boredom, and with

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Released victims become paranoid and often experience post

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THE HOSTAGE TAKER

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• Instrumental behavior- those who are engaging in this kind of

• Expressive behavior- This kind of behavior is characterized by

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In many hostage situations committed, statistics reveals that

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The individual may talk to himself of hear voices, or he may be

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A patrol officer is usually the first person to respond to a crisis

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To begin with the different kinds of mental disorder, we must

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Psychosis is a gross and persistent falsification of conventional

Delusion is the faulty belief that is motivated primarily by the

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Paranoia is a set of fixed delusional beliefs that are accompanied by clear

The True paranoid or the Classical paranoid as psychologists prefer, may

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Schizophrenia is a thinking disorder. Expert says that,

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The signs and symptoms of the schizophrenic condition may appear

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Neurosis is suffered by a person if most likely to be observed in a

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In general, they are characterized by being out of touch with

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Male paranoid may have problems with gender identity and

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The first thing a negotiator should do is to keep the dialogue

1. Reduce anxiety at the same time create a problem solving

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2. Do not trick the captor

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Manic depressive personality

Depressed individuals are in an incapacitated mental state. He

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When dealing with this kind of mentally disturbed hostage taker,

1. Firm and manipulative