EXCHANGES WITH THE

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
- Excretory system with emphasis on the urinary system
- Respiratory system
EXCRETION
◦ The metabolism of nutrients produces waste and although
some of these substances are necessary for other functions
in the body, excesses must be eliminated to avoid damage
to the body.
◦ Excretion is the process of removing metabolic wastes
produced by the body and other unmetabolized
substances.
◦ Excretion is carried out by several systems:
 Carbon dioxide is released in the respiratory system.
 In the digestive system, undigested material is
eliminated through the feces.
 In the integumentary system substances are eliminated
in sweat.
 Urine is produced in the urinary system and contains
most of the metabolic waste.
Structure and
function
◦ The functions of the urinary system are:
◦ Regulate the levels of ions in the blood, such
as sodium, potassium, chloride and calcium
◦ Maintains proper blood pH
◦ Regulates the water content in the blood
◦ Retains nutrients such as glucose and amino
acids in the blood
◦ Eliminates waste substances such as CO2 and
certain nitrogenous substances such as urea
and uric acid
Urine formation
◦ It is formed by the filtration of blood plasma. It carries metabolic waste dissolved in water.
◦ There are 2 structures that form and modify urine: the nephron and the collecting tubules.
◦ In the nephron :
 Glomerulus: Bowman's capsule is where substances to be excreted are filtered. Inside the
capsule, is the glomerulus. Here the primary urine is formed. For every 100ml of primary urine,
99ml returns to circulation
 Proimal convoluted tubule: it is a tube with a tortuous path where useful substances such as
sodium, chlorine, calcium and amino acids are absorbed
 Henle´s handle: Tube with a “U” shape, here water and electrolytes are reabsorbed
 Distal convlotuted tubule: like the proximal, it is tortuous. More useful molecules and water are
absorbed with hormone stimulation
 Bowman capsule: is the hollow spherical unit where the substances to be excreted are filtered
Organs of the
urinary sistema
◦ 2 kidneys
◦ 2 ureters
◦ 1 bladder
◦ 1 urethra

 The kidneys produce urine, it passes

through the ureters to the bladder, where it
is stored; when distended, the urination
reflex is activated and leaves the body
through the urethra
The kidneys
◦ They are located above the
waist on both sides of the
spine and are protected by
the last ribs.
◦ They are bean-shaped, the
size of an avocado, 10 cm
long, 5 cm wide and 3 cm
thick.
◦ They are not located
symmetrically; the right is
a little lower than the left
due to the position of the
liver.
◦ Filters 1 liter of blood per
minute
Parts of the kidney

◦ From the most external we have the renal cortex, the renal
medulla, the calyces, the renal pelvis and the ureter.
◦ The medulla is made up of pyramidal structures of dense tissue.
◦ Nephrons are found in the medulla and cortex.
◦ In the center of the kidney there is a space called the renal
pelvis where urine collects and later becomes the ureter, which
carries urine to the bladder.
◦ The renal artery also enters the kidney, and the renal vein exits.
◦ The nephrons are responsible for producing urine, in each
kidney there are about 1 million
Formation of the urine
◦ It is carried out in 3 stages:
 The first stage is filtration, and it occurs in the glomerulus, which are the capillaries surrounded by
a cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule; As blood flows, arterial pressure pushes water
and solutes from the capillaries into the capsule. This process is like a strainer, where there are pores
of a certain size through which red blood cells and proteins do not pass, but water and smaller
particles do. An adult can filter up to 180 liters a day and this liquid contains water, amino acids,
glucose, vitamins, ions, salts and urea.
 The second stage is tubular reabsorption and occurs in the tubule. Here the dissolved molecules
that the body still needs return to the blood, such as sugars, nutrients and water. The exact place
where it occurs in the loop of Henle.
 The third stage is tubular secretion that occurs in the urine collecting duct, where wastes and
excess ions such as potassium, ammonium, creatinine, drugs, and other chemicals are secreted into
the urine.

 The secretion of urine has 2 main effects: elimination of certain wastes and the regulation of blood
pH.
Ureters, bladder and urethra
◦ The ureters are made of smooth muscle and form a tube that goes from the
kidneys to the bladder, measuring about 30 cm long and 0.5 cm in diameter.
◦ The bladder is balloon-shaped, hollow, and made of muscle; It can store up
to 800 ml of urine. The bladder distends and touching the ureters triggers the
urination reflex, which can be controlled by an external sphincter that
connects the bladder with the urethra.
◦ The urethra runs from the bottom of the bladder to the outside of the body
and its job is to remove urine from the body. In women it measures 4 cm and
in men 20 cm
Diseases of the
urinary system
• Cistitis: It is inflammation of the bladder, caused by a
bacterial infection. It is a very annoying infection that can
spread to the kidneys. Treatment is with antibiotics. It can
be caused by a reaction to certain antibiotics, spermicides,
catheter use, or some other infection.
• These types of infections are more common in women, due
to the short length of the urethra; can occur in sexually
active women, the use of certain contraceptives, and
pregnancy
Diseases of the urinary system
Kidney stones: it is the accumulation of salts and minerals in the urine, it crystallizes
and forms solid and insoluble structures. They can stay in the kidneys or move through
the ureter and be eliminated when urinating; If they are not eliminated, there is a lot of
pain when urinating and difficulty in urination.

The stones can be very small or reach several centimeters in diameter; in most cases
they are expelled, but analgesics and plenty of water are required for them to come out;
if they are trapped in the urinary tract, surgery is necessary to remove them.

It is common for it to occur when there is dehydration, due to a family history, the use
of supplements and medications, and a diet with high levels of salt, sugar, or protein.
Diseases of the urinary
system
◦ Kidney failure: this condition is a complication of diabetes and arterial hypertension,
although it can also occur due to drug abuse, drugs and food supplements.
◦ This disease has no cure, so the patient must undergo constant artificial dialysis
treatment, that is, a process in which waste products and excess water must be
removed from the body.
 Peritoneal dialysis: a catheter is inserted into the peritoneum, dialysis fluid is
pumped into the abdominal cavity where blood vessels fill with dialysis fluid; it is
left to act for several hours. The solution causes extra fluid and waste substances to
be removed and then drained out of the body through the catheter.
 Hemodialysis: the patient's blood is withdrawn from the body and pumped through
a cellophane membrane that is suspended in dialysing fluid, this membrane has
pores that are adjustable to the required size; the dialysate solution has levels of
salts and nutrients in normal concentrations, which causes the waste products of the
extracted blood to pass by diffusion into the solution. This treatment is carried out
in a period of 4 to 6 hours, three times a week.
Respiratory system

◦ The function of this system is to transport air with oxygen

to the gas exchange zone in the lung. There the oxygen
diffuses through the alveolar sacs and enters the
bloodstream, carried by the erythrocytes.
◦ Respiratory cycles are involuntary and are regulated by the
medulla oblongata
◦ In vertebrates, this system is divided into two parts:
 Conductive portion: are all the ducts that carry air in and
out.
 Gas exchange portion: is formed by the alveoli where gas
exchange takes place
Structure of the respiratory
system
◦ It extends from the nose to the alveolar sacs and is divided into upper and
lower airways
◦ The upper airways include the nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx. The lower
airways include the tracheobronchial tree, bronchioles, and alveoli.
◦ The path of the air begins in the nasal cavity, entering through the nostrils,
there we find vibrissae, sebaceous and sweat glands that function as the first
line of defense.
◦ The nasal cavity ends in the choanae that communicate with the pharynx, the
entire mucosa is covered with mucus, which serves to maintain moisture and
trap dust particles, and in the choanae there are cilia that expel the particles
that we breathe. Thanks to vascularization, the air we breathe heats up.
◦ Also here the function of olfaction is carried out where smells are perceived.
Pharynx 
◦ The pharynx is a structure
shared with the digestive
and respiratory systems.
◦ The mouth communicates
with it through the isthmus
of the fauces, where the
tonsils and uvula are
located.
◦ In the respiratory system it
functions as a sounding
board.
Larynx and Traquea
◦ In the larynx are the vocal cords, which participate in the emission of sounds;
connects the pharynx with the trachea and is formed by 9 cartilages:
◦ Thyroid cartilage: known as Adam's apple, this cartilage develops due to hormonal action
during male puberty, which is why it is larger in men than in women.
◦ The epiglottis: it is shaped like a tree leaf, inserted into the thyroid cartilage and the free part is
the one that moves to close when the bolus passes and remains open when breathing and
speaking
 Cricoid cartilage: connects the larynx to the trachea and protects the vocal cords that
vibrate with the passage of air
 In addition to the arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages
◦ The trachea is the continuation of the larynx, and is a tube made up of rings of
hyaline cartilage in the shape of a "C". Here is the cough center where the
expulsive reflex of any foreign agent originates
Bronchi and Bronchioles
◦ The trachea branches into 2 bronchi that enter each lung and within these,
they are divided into 3 branches for the right lung and 2 for the left. At their
widest they measure 1 cm in diameter.
◦ The smallest branches of the bronchi are the bronchioles that measure 1 mm
in diameter. These are subdivided into alveoli which are microscopic.
◦ The branching from the trachea to the bronchioles is known as the bronchial
tree.
Gas Exchange between the
respiratory and circulatory
systems
◦ These two systems work together to carry out gas
exchange.
◦ First the blood takes oxygen from the air in the lungs;
hemoglobin allows red blood cells to take up oxygen
molecules
◦ Each hemoglobin molecule carries up to 4 oxygen, which is
carried to all cells
◦ They then return with carbon dioxide, which is released, to
retake oxygen into the lungs.
Alveoli, lungs, intercostal
and diaphragm muscles

The alveoli are the last ramifications of the

The lungs are soft, spongy organs that hold
bronchioles and gas exchange occurs in
about 1.5 liters of air. They are covered by a
them; They measure less than 0.5 mm in
membrane called the pleura and between the
diameter. They are grouped together like
lungs and the pleura, the pleural fluid. They
bunches of grapes and there are about 150
are divided into lobes, the left has 2 and the
million in each lung; are lined with
right 3
capillaries

The diaphragm is located below the lungs

The intercostal muscles are located between
the ribs, on inspiration they contract to raise
the ribcage and allow the lungs to fill with
air; when exhaling they relax and the ribcage
lowers, squeezing the lungs to get the air out
and is the main muscle involved in breathing,
it is shaped like a dome that contracts and
relaxes involuntarily. When it contracts it
rises and pushes air out of the lungs, when it
relaxes it allows the lungs to expand and fill
with air.
Anti-smoking laws

◦ They prohibit smoking in closed public and private places

such as schools, nurseries, hospitals, libraries, health
centers, public transport, government agencies, cinemas,
theaters, restaurants, bars. In restaurants and bars an area is
assigned for smokers.
◦ Penalize with fines of up to 10,000 minimum wages, arrest
of up to 36 hours and reprimands, temporary or permanent
closure of the establishment depending on the offense.
◦ The advertising and promotion of tobacco products must be
directed at adults.
◦ Increase the size of the warning label on cigarette packs and
include images of affected human organs
Diseases of the
respiratory system
◦ Bronchitis: inflammation of the airways, bronchial
tubes. It can be acute due to an irritant or infection or
chronic related to smoking. Presents with dyspnea,
cough with phlegm, the bronchi may close, limiting air
access for gas exchange
◦ Emphysema: Smoking-related disease in which the
alveolar walls break down, thereby reducing the surface
area for oxygen uptake. It is an irreversible disease
◦ Lung cancer: related to smoking, pollution, occupation
and gender of the person. It is one of those with the
highest mortality rate. It is classified according to the
cells where it originates. 90% of lung cancer patients are
smokers