Physics [Unit

1]
IGCSE
1.1
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

2
Measurement

Rulers Measuring cylinders Clocks/Digital

Used to Used to measure volume Timers
measure Used to measure a
length variety of time
intervals

3
Average

We can find the average value of a small distance or

time interval by measuring averages

4
E.
g Find the thickness of one piece of paper:

{Using a ruler would be highly inaccurate}

- For a more accurate result

- Measure the thickness of a hundred pieces of
paper
- Divide the value by 100
- Now you have a more accurate result

Find the time interval of one pendulum swing:

{Using a clock/timer for this would be inaccurate}

- For a more accurate result

- Measure the time of ten pendulum swings
- Divide the value by 10
- Now you have a more accurate result

5
SCALA
A
Rquantity that only has magnitude
(size)

VECTOR
A quantity that has magnitude
and direction
Scalar Vector
● Distance ● Force
● Speed ● Weight
● Time ● Velocity
● Mass ● Acceleration
● Energy ● Momentum
● Temperature ● Electric field strength
● Gravitational field strength

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1.2
MOTIO
N

8
Speed is distance travelled per unit
time
Formula - s = d/t OR speed =
distance/time

Velocity is speed in a given direction

Formula - v = Δs/Δt OR velocity = change in displacement/change
in time

Acceleration is change in velocity per unit time

Formula - a = Δv/Δt OR acceleration = change in velocity/change in
time

9
1.
MASS AND WEIGHT
3

10
Mass is the measure of the quantity of matter in an
object
It is measured in Kilograms (kg)

Weight is the effect of gravitational field on a

mass
It is measured in Newtons (N)

Gravitational Field (strength):

This is equivalent to
Force per unit mass the
acceleration of freefall
m/s )
(9.8 2

Formula: g = w/m OR gravity = weight /

mass
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1.4
DENSITY

12
 Density is mass per unit
volume- p = m/v
Formula OR density =
mass/volume

Mass
(kg)

Density Volume
(ρ) (cm3)

13
How would you calculate the density of the
following:
Liqui Regular Irregular
d Solid Solid
1. Measure the mass of
the solid by using a
1. Put measuring 1. Calculate the volume weighing scale
cylinder on scale and (height x width x 2. Add water to a
reset to 0 length) of the solid measuring cylinder
2. Pour liquid into the using a measuring and measure the
measuring cylinder cylinder initial volume
and measure the 2. Measure the mass of 3. Submerge solid into the
volume the solid using a water and check the
3. Measure mass of weighing scale final volume
liquid by reading the 3. Calculate the density 4. Volume of solid =
weighing scale by mass/volume final volume- initial
4. Calculate density volume
by mass/volume 5. Calculate density
by mass/volume
14
 An object in a
●liquid
If an object is less dense than the liquid it is placed in then it will float
● If an object is more dense than the liquid it is placed in then it will sink

A liquid in another liquid

● If one liquid is more dense than the liquid it is mixed with then it will float
on top
● If one liquid is more dense than the liquid it is mixed with then it will settle
at the bottom

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1.5
FORCES

16
Force is a push or pull which changes or tries to change
the state of rest, the state of uniform motion, size or
shape of an object.

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 Load- Extension
7 Graph
6

4
Loa
d

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Extensio
n
 Load- Extension
7 Graph This graph shows
6 how the extension
of a spring
5 depends on the
load (force) that
4 is put on it
Loa
d

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Extensio
n
 Load- Extension
7 Graph This graph shows
6 how the extension
of a spring
5 depends on the
load (force) that
4 is put on it
Loa
d

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Extensio
n
 Load- Extension
7 Graph This graph shows
6 how the extension
of a spring
5 depends on the
load (force) that
4 is put on it
Loa
d

Limit of 1
proportionalit
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Extensio
n
Limit Of Proportionality is the maximum amount of load
(force) that a spring can take without getting deformed
Limit Of Proportionality is the maximum amount of
load (force) that a spring can take without getting deformed

Spring Constant is described as the force per unit

extension
Spring Constant is described as the force per unit
extension
Formula: K = f/x
Spring Constant (K) = Force (f) /
Extension (x)
Determine the resultant of two forces acting along on the same
straight line:

● The change in the motion of an object is called a force.

● Force is a vector quantity and it has magnitude and direction.
● The magnitude of the force increases, when the two forces act in the same direction and
it decreases, when the two forces acts in the different direction.
● The two forces are added, when they act along the same straight line and in the same
direction.
● The two forces are subtracted from small to large, when they act in the opposite
direction.

25
An object either remains at rest or continues at constant speed
(in a straight line) unless acted on by a resultant force

A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by

changing its direction of motion or its speed

26
 F=
ma
The force (F) acting on an object is equal to the mass
(m) of an object times its acceleration (a)

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 F=
ma
The force (F) acting on an object is equal to the mass
(m) of an object times its acceleration (a)

Force and acceleration

are always in the same
direction

28
Describe, qualitatively, motion in a circular path due
to a force perpendicular to the motion as:

● Speed increases if force increases, with mass and radius constant

● Radius decreases if force increases, with mass and speed constant

● An increased mass requires an increased force to keep speed and radius

constant

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS (3)

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31
32
1.5
FORCES (continued)

33
Friction is the force that works against an object as it slides along the
surface of another object or moves through a liquid or gas

34
● Solid friction is the friction between two surfaces that may slow
down the objects from sliding past each other or produce heat.

● Friction can act on an object even if it is moving through

a liquid [drag]

● Friction can act on an object if it is moving through a gas

too (i.e air resistance)

35
Moment of a force is the measure
of its turning effect
Formula:
Moment of force = force x perpendicular distance OR M=
M= FD OR Nm

e.g turning a door handle, sitting on a seesaw, closing a

pair of scissors etc.

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37
How much force is needed to reach
equilibrium? ? 20N

15cm 40cm

38
Y 20N

15cm 40cm

39
How much force is needed to reach
equilibrium? 75N

Y 20N

20cm 15cm

40
 75N
Y 20N

20cm 15cm

60cm

41
We can see that in the previous two examples, the
objects reached equilibrium

● When an object is in equilibrium, it means that there

is no resultant force nor resultant moment acting on
it.

● Meaning that the resultant force/moment is 0

42
The term 'equilibrium' means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing,
without any change.
Therefore:
● If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line).
● If it is stationary it will remain stationary.
● The object will also not start or stop turning.

● The above conditions require two things:

- The forces on the object must be balanced (there must be no resultant
force).
- The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of
anticlockwise moments (the principle of moments).
-
● If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium
43
A simple experiment to demonstrate that there is no net moment on an object in
equilibrium involves taking an object, such as a beam, and replacing the supports
with newton (force) meters.

- Let’s say a beam is in equilibrium.

-The various forces acting on the beam can be found by measuring the masses of the beam and the mass suspended
from the beam.

-The distance of each force from the end of the ruler can then be measured, allowing the moment of each force about the
end of the ruler to be calculated.

- It can then be shown that the sum of clockwise moments equal the sum of anticlockwise moments.

44
Centre of Gravity is a point in an object
where the distribution of weight is equal in all
directions

45
An experiment to
determine the position
of the centre of gravity
of an irregularly shaped
plane lamina

46
 The effect of the position of the centre of gravity
on the stability of simple objects

● The lower the center of gravity of an object is, the stabler it is.
● Objects with higher center of gravity are easier to topple than objects with lower center of
gravity.
● An object with a big base area is less likely to fall or topple over, than an object with a small
base area.
● Furthermore, these two factors combine to decide the stability of an object.
● An object would fall over, if it's center of gravity does not pass through its base when it is tilted.

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1.6
MOMENTUM

48
Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity
Formula: p = mv OR momentum = mass x
velocity

49
Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity
Formula: p = mv OR momentum = mass x velocity

Impulse is the effect of force acting over time to

change the momentum of an object

50
Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity
Formula: p = mv OR momentum = mass x velocity

Impulse is the effect of force acting over time to

change the momentum of an object

Resultant force is the

change in momentum per unit
time
Formula: F = Δp/Δt OR res. force
= change in momentum / change in
time

51
The Principle of Conservation
of Momentum
● In a closed or isolated system, the total
momentum of the objects before the
collision is equal to the total momentum of
the objects after the collision

- Momentum is not
created nor
destroyed
52
The Principle of Conservation
of Momentum
● In a closed or isolated system, the total
momentum of the objects before the
collision
equal to is
the total momentum of the
objects after the collision Pinitial = pfinal

- Momentum is not
created nor
destroyed
53
What does closed and isolated
mean?
● Matter and energy do not enter or leave
the system
● No net outside forces act on the system

54
Conservation of Momentum in one
dimension:
● Two objects of masses m and m collide with each other while moving along a straight
1 2

line with velocities u1 and u2, respectively.

● After the collision, they acquire velocities v1 and v2 in the same direction.
- Total momentum before collision pi=m1u1+m2u2
- Total momentum after collision pf=m1v1+m2v2

● If no other force acts on the system of the two objects, total momentum remains
conserved. Therefore,
- Pi = pf
- m1u1+m2u2= m1v1+m2v2

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1.7
ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

56
Energy is the capacity or power to do work,
such as the capacity to move an object (of a
given mass) by the application of force

57
Energy is the capacity or power to do work,
such as the capacity to move an object (of a
given mass) by the application of force

Energy can exist in a variety of forms, such as, kinetic, gravitational potential,
chemical, elastic (strain),
nuclear, electrostatic and internal (thermal)

58
Energy Store Description
Kinetic Energy an object has because it is moving

Gravitational Potential

Chemical

Elastic

Nuclear

Electrostatic

Thermal

59
Energy Store Description
Kinetic Energy an object has because it is moving

Gravitational potential Energy an object has due to its position above the
ground. An object gains gravitational energy when
lifted and loses it when it falls

Chemical

Elastic

Nuclear

Electrostatic

Thermal

60
Energy Store Description
Kinetic Energy an object has because it is moving

Gravitational potential Energy an object has due to its position above the
ground. An object gains gravitational energy when
lifted and loses it when it falls

Chemical Energy found in food, fuels and batteries. It is

transferred during chemical reactions

Elastic

Nuclear

Electrostatic

Thermal

61
Energy Store Description
Kinetic Energy an object has because it is moving

Gravitational potential Energy an object has due to its position above the
ground. An object gains gravitational energy when
lifted and loses it when it falls

Chemical Energy found in food, fuels and batteries. It is

transferred during chemical reactions

Elastic Energy stored in a stretched spring or elastic

band

Nuclear

Electrostatic

Thermal

62
Energy Store Description

Kinetic Energy an object has because it is moving

Gravitational potential Energy an object has due to its position above the
ground. An object gains gravitational energy when
lifted and loses it when it falls

Chemical Energy found in food, fuels and batteries. It is

transferred during chemical reactions

Elastic Energy stored in a stretched spring or elastic

band

Nuclear Energy contained within the nucleus of an atom

Electrostatic

Thermal
63
Energy Store Description

Kinetic Energy an object has because it is moving

Gravitational potential Energy an object has due to its position above the
ground. An object gains gravitational energy when
lifted and loses it when it falls

Chemical Energy found in food, fuels and batteries. It is

transferred during chemical reactions

Elastic Energy stored in a stretched spring or elastic

band

Nuclear Energy contained within the nucleus of an atom

Electrostatic Energy due to the forces of attraction (or

repulsion) between two charges

Thermal
64
Energy Store Description

Kinetic Energy an object has because it is

moving

Gravitational potential Energy an object has due to its position

above the ground. An object gains
gravitational energy when lifted and loses
it when it falls

Chemical Energy found in food, fuels and

batteries. It is transferred during
chemical reactions

Elastic Energy stored in a stretched spring or

elastic band

Nuclear Energy contained within the nucleus of an

atom

Electrostatic Energy due to the forces of attraction (or

repulsion) between two charges Internal energy is the
grand total of all the
Thermal Energy a substance has due to its
temperature
energies in a
substance
65
Energy
Transfers
Mechanical energy transfer
● A car engine converts chemical energy in the gas into kinetic
energy to move your engine
Electrical energy transfer
● Flow of electrons from a power source through the wire to the
output within a circuit

66
Principle of the conservation of
energy
● Energy is neither created nor
destroyed
[In a closed or isolated system]

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 Light (10%)
Electrical
energy
(100%)

The example here is of

a filament light bulb,
Sankey Diagram where 10% of the
energy is used to make
light, and the rest is
“wasted” as it warms
Even here you can see up the surrounding
that no energy is lost nor without producing
created. The input has light.
100% and the output has
a 100%

Thermal (90%)
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A A A A A Vacuum
heater 6
Bulb wire Blender
 Formula of kinetic energy:
2 2
Ek = ½ mv OR Kinetic Energy = ½ x Mass x Velocity

Formula of gravitational potential energy:

∆Ep = mg∆h OR Gravit. Poten. Energy= Mass x Gravity x Change in Height

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1.7
ENERGY, WORK AND POWER (continued)

71
 - Mechanical or electrical work done is
equal to the energy transferred
Formula for Mechanical working:
W = Fd = ΔE OR Work = Force x Distance = Change in Energy
(transfer)

72
Energy
Resources
● Chemical energy stored in fossil fuels

● Chemical energy stored in biofuels

● Water, including the energy stored in waves, in tides, and in

water behind hydroelectric dams

● Geothermal resources

● Light from the Sun to generate electrical power (solar cells)

● Infrared and other electromagnetic waves from the Sun to heat

water (solar panels) and be the source of wind energy

73
● Chemical energy stored in fossil fuels
● Chemical energy stored in biofuels

- Burning fuel produces heat, which can turn

water into steam, and then that steam turns
the turbine to generate electricity
Boilers are used to produce
steam or heat water for
space and process heating
● Energy stored in waves/ tides and for the generation of
● Water behind hydroelectric dams mechanical power and
electricity
- Hydroelectric and tidal power uses
gravitational potential energy to turn
the turbines, which generate
electricity.
- Waves naturally contain energy in the form
of kinetic energy

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● Geothermal resources

- The heat from underground can be used to

turn water into steam, which can turn the
turbine to produce electricity

Generators are used

to as a source of
power for these
● Nuclear fuel
processes
- Nuclear fuel chemically reacts. Which
produces heat, which turn water into steam,
which turns the turbine and produces
electricity

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● Light from the sun to generate
electrical power (solar cells)

- Solar cells (or photovoltaic cells)

directly convert sunlight and solar
radiation to electricity

● Infrared and other electromagnetic waves from the

Sun to heat water (solar panels) and be the source
of wind energy

- “Infrared” is radiated heat, which heats water

to turn into steam, and then turns the
turbine for electricity
- Energy in the wind, turns the turbine
which generates electricity

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Radiation from the Sun is the main
source of energy for all our energy
resources except geothermal,
nuclear and tidal

77
Fossil
Fuel
❏ Renewability - Non-renewable
❏ Reliability - Reliable
❏ Cost - Cheap
❏ Environmental - Pollutes the environment by releasing
Impact nitrogen

78
Biofue
l
❏ Renewability - Renewable
❏ Reliability - Reliable
❏ Cost - More expensive than fossil fuel
❏ Environmental - Pollutes water with increase of nitrogen and
Impact phosphorus

79
Geotherma
l
❏ Renewability - Renewable
❏ Reliability - Reliable
❏ Cost - Cheapest form of clean energy
❏ Environmental - Causes some pollution but is
Impact more
environmentally friendly than fossil fuel
and does minimal emissions compared to it

80
Nuclea
r
❏ Renewability - Non-renewable
❏ Reliability - Reliable
❏ Cost - Expensive to build but relatively cheap to
❏ Environmental run
Impact - Produces radioactive waste which can
remain in the air for thousands of
years

81
Win
d
❏ Renewability - Renewable
❏ Reliability - Unreliable
❏ Cost - One of the lowest priced energy
❏ Environmental resources
Impact - Environmentally natural and friendly

82
Tide
s
❏ Renewability - Renewable
❏ Reliability - Unreliable
❏ Cost - More expensive than wind
❏ Environmental - Environmentally natural and
Impact friendly

83
Sunligh
t
❏ Renewability - Renewable
❏ Reliability - Unreliable
❏ Cost - Solar panels are expensive
❏ Environmental - Necessity for all living things but has
Impact harmful UV rays that can damage us if
there was no ozone layer.

84
In the sun, energy is released
by nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fusion:
When two light nuclei merge to form a
single heavier nucleus

Scientists are still

investigating on how
energy released from
nuclear fusion can be used
to produce electrical
energy on large scales

85
Efficienc
yEfficiency, in terms of
energy transfer, is how
much of the original input
energy is converted into the
next source of energy
required

(%) efficiency =(useful energy output) / (total energy input) (× 100%)

(%) efficiency = (useful power output) / (total power input) (× 100%)

86
1.7
ENERGY, WORK AND POWER (continued pt.2)

87
Powe
r
Power is work done per unit time and also
energy transferred per unit time

Formula: P = W / OR Power = work done / time

t OR Power = energy transferred /
P= time
ΔE / t

88
1.
PRESSURE
8

89
Pressure is the force per unit
area
Formula: P = F / a OR Pressure = Force /
Area

● Increasing force while the area stays constant increases the pressure
● Increasing the area while the force stays constant decreases the
pressure

90
91
ΔP = ρgΔh
Change in pressure = density x gravity x change
in height

92
93
94
95
A tank of height [6m] is
filled with water.
Calculate the pressure on
the tank at the bottom

96
A tank of height [6m] is
filled with water.
Calculate the pressure on
the tank at the bottom

● P = ρgh

- P = (1000)(10)
(6)
- P = 60 000
- P = 6 x 10^4
97