Research Methods in Geosciences (Geol 4161)

Aspiron Hangibayna (PhD candidate)

Arba Minch University

Collage of Natural & Computational Sciences
Department of Geology

Chapter – One
March, 2023 1
1| Introduction to Philosophy of Science and Logic of Argument

Topic Outlines

o Occam's razor
o Circular argument/reasoning
o Inductive reasoning
o Justifying conclusions
o Hierarchy of knowledge (Data, information, knowledge)
o Definition, analysis, synthesis

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 Having completed this chapter, you should be able to:

Chapter have milestone concept of research

Objectives understand philosophy of sciences
understand how to arrive at conclusions

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 1.1| Introduction

What is a research???
Investigation using scientific procedures, by searching again and again
to find out the truth.

Research is the continual search for truth using the scientific methods.
It is the pursuit of the truth with the help of study, investigation,
observation, comparison and/or experimentation.

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 1.2| Occam’s razor

Occam’s razor-1
• The Occam’s razor principle (of William Ockham) states that the
explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as
possible, eliminating, or “shaving off”, the observable predictions of the
explanatory hypothesis or theory.
Occam's razor -2
• Given two equally valid explanations for a phenomenon, one should
embrace the less complicated formulation.
• And, when multiple competing theories have equal predictive powers,
select those that introduce the fewest assumptions and the fewest
hypothetical entities.
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 1.2| Occam’s razor …cont’d

What is Bias?

• Critical thinking does not assure that one will reach either the truth or
correct conclusions.

• First, one may not have all the relevant information indeed, important
information may remain undiscovered, or the information may not even
be knowable.

• Second, one's biases may prevent effective gathering and evaluation of

the available information.

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 1.2| Occam’s razor … cont’d

Bias Types
• Decision making biases

• Behavioural biases

• Biases in probability and belief

• Social biases

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 1.3| Circular Reasoning/Argument

• Circular reasoning (also known as paradoxical thinking or circular logic),

is a logical fallacy in which "the reasoner begins with what he or she is
trying to end up with".

• The individual components of a circular argument will sometimes be

logically valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be
true, and will not lack relevance.

• Circular logic cannot prove a conclusion because, if the conclusion is

doubted, the premise which leads to it will also be doubted.

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 1.4| Critical Thinking

a| Deductive Reasoning/Argument:

 Starts with a general rules (a premise) which we know to be true. Then,

from that rule, we make a true conclusion about something specific.

 The process of reasoning from known facts to conclusions. When you

reason deductively, you can say “therefore” with certainty. If your facts
were firm to begin with, then your conclusions will also be firm.

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 1.4| Critical Thinking

Deductive Reasoning

Theory

Hypothesis

Observation

Confirmation

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 1.4| Critical Thinking
a| Deductive Argument

o In one in which it is impossible for the premises to be true but the

conclusion is false.

o It is supposed to be a definitive proof of the truth of the claim (conclusion).

o If the premises are true (and they are), then it simply isn’t possible for the
conclusion to be false.

o If you have a deductive argument and you accept the truth of the premises,
then you must also accept the truth of the conclusion.
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 1.4| Critical Thinking
Deductive Reasoning

From vague

To specific
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 1.4| Critical Thinking

b| Inductive Reasoning/Argument:

The process of going from observations to conclusions.

These types of conclusions are sometimes called an inferences.

Observing that something is true many times, then concluding that it will
be true in all instances.

Using the data to make a prediction.

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 1.4| Critical Thinking

True True True Conclusion

Premises Premises

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 1.4| Critical Thinking
Inductive Reasoning OR
From specific Theory

Tentative
Hypothesis

Pattern

To vague
Observation

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 1.4| Critical Thinking

Example:
Zeberega owns only blue and brown pants. Zeberega is wearing a pair of pants
today. So, Zeberega is wearing either blue or brown pants today.

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 1.5| Justifying Conclusions
• Once your data have been collected, it is time to begin to analyze the data and
come to conclusions regarding the program based on your research questions.

• The analyses performed during this step

depend on your evaluation questions as well
the type of data you have collected.
• In this step, focus on both organizing and
processing the data properly and ensuring
presentation of the results will be easily
understandable to your various audiences.

Web:COMMUNITYTOOLBOX 17
 1.6| Hierarchy of Knowledge
Data
• is a collection of facts in a raw or unorganized form such as numbers or
characters.
Information
• is data that has been “cleaned” of errors
and further processed in a way that makes
it easier to measure, visualize and analyze
for a specific purpose.
• data processing can involve different
operations- combining different sets of
data, ensuring that the collected data is
relevant and accurate (validation), etc.
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 1.6| Hierarchy of Knowledge

Knowledge
“How” is the information, derived from the collected data, relevant to our
goals?
“How” are the pieces of this information connected to other pieces to add
more meaning and value?
And, maybe most importantly, “how” can we apply the information to
achieve our goal?

How???

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 1.6| Hierarchy of Knowledge
Wisdom
usage of the knowledge and insights gained from the information to take
proactive decisions.
In other words, wisdom is knowledge applied in action.
Why???

We can also say that, if data and information are like a look back to the
past, knowledge and wisdom are associated with what we do now and
what we want to achieve in the future.

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 1.7| Definition, Analysis and Synthesis
What is Definition?
A definition defines a word, term or concept in depth by providing a personal
commentary on what the specific subject means. It provides a personal,
extended definition (goes beyond what is in a dictionary) of such terms by
linking or comparing the term to a previous definition and by illustrating how
that term should be applied.
Definition is a composition whose aim is to convey the writer’s understanding
of what is included in and excluded from the meaning of an expression.
The main purpose of definition is to explain to readers one’s
understanding of a key term or concept
Secondly, is to persuade readers that one’s definition is a legitimate one.
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 1.7| Definition, Analysis and Synthesis
What is Analysis?
The act of studying or examining something in detail, in order to discover or
understand more about it, or your opinion and judgment. after doing this:
The act of examining a substance, especially by separating it into its parts, in
order to discover what it is or contains.
What is Synthesis? 
Synthesis is a converse of analysis: putting the pieces back together again in a
new or different whole.
On a basic level, synthesis involves bringing together two or more sources,
looking for themes in each. In synthesis, you search for the links between
various materials in order to make your point. Most advanced academic
writing relies heavily on synthesis.
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