SPECIFYING A PURPOSE AND

RESEARCH QUESTIONS OR
HYPOTHESES IN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

BY
NATALIA ANGGRARINI, M.PD.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
PURPOSE STATEMENTS: IS A STATEMENT THAT
ADVANCES THE OVERALL DIRECTION OR
FOCUS FOR THE STUDY

• QUANTITATIVE:
THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY IS TO EXAMINE THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE USE OF INTERNET
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN TEACHERS AND
PARENTS IN A MIDWESTERN SCHOOL DISTRICT AND
STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ON TESTS IN HIGH SCHOOL
 RESEARCH QUESTIONS: QUESTIONS IN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH THAT NARROW THE PURPOSE STATEMENT TO
SPECIFIC QUESTIONS THAT RESEARCHERS SEEK TO ANSWER.

• QUANTITATIVE:
DO PARENT–TEACHER INTERNET COMMUNICATIONS AFFECT STUDENT
PERFORMANCE IN THE CLASSROOM?
 HYPOTHESES: STATEMENTS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN WHICH THE
INVESTIGATOR MAKES A PREDICTION OR A CONJECTURE ABOUT THE
OUTCOME OF A RELATIONSHIP AMONG ATTRIBUTES OR CHARACTERISTICS

• USUALLY IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

STUDENTS IN HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE SCHOOL DISTRICT IN WHICH PARENTS
AND TEACHERS COMMUNICATE THROUGH THE INTERNET WILL HAVE HIGHER
GRADES THAN STUDENTS WHOSE PARENTS AND TEACHERS DO NOT
COMMUNICATE THROUGH THE INTERNET.
 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: STATEMENTS OF INTENT USED IN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH THAT SPECIFIC ES GOALS THAT
THE INVESTIGATOR PLANS TO ACHIEVE IN A STUDY
• EXAMPLE:
1. TO DESCRIBE THE FREQUENCY OF INTERNET COMMUNICATION BETWEEN
PARENTS AND TEACHERS REGARDING THE PARENTS’ CHILDREN IN HIGH
SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES CLASSES
2. TO DESCRIBE THE TYPES (OR CATEGORIES) OF INTERNET COMMUNICATION
BETWEEN PARENTS AND TEACHERS
3. TO RELATE (A) FREQUENCY AND (B) TYPES OF COMMUNICATION TO STUDENT
ACHIEVEMENT IN THE CLASS AS MEASURED BY PERFORMANCE ON TESTS
 DESIGN QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENTS,
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESES
• SPECIFYING VARIABLES:
DEPENDENT VARIABLES, INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
 QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENTS

• A QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT IDENTIFIES THE VARIABLES, THEIR RELATIONSHIP, AND

THE PARTICIPANTS AND SITE FOR RESEARCH.
SAMPLE SCRIPTS:
• THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY IS TO TEST FINES’ THEORY (1996) BY RELATING LEADERSHIP STYLE
(INDEPENDENT VARIABLE) TO AUTONOMY (DEPENDENT VARIABLE) FOR TEACHERS
(PARTICIPANTS) IN HIGH SCHOOLS IN STATE X (RESEARCH SITE).
• THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY IS TO TEST SMART’S THEORY (1999) BY COMPARING AUTOCRATIC
LEADERS (GROUP 1) WITH CONSENSUS-BUILDING LEADERS (GROUP 2) IN TERMS OF THE
SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS (DEPENDENT VARIABLE) IN COLLEGES IN STATE X (RESEARCH SITE).
 GUIDELINES:

• POSE A QUESTION
• BEGIN WITH “HOW,” “WHAT,” OR “WHY”
• SPECIFY THE INDEPENDENT, DEPENDENT, AND MEDIATING OR CONTROL VARIABLES
• USE THE WORDS DESCRIBE, COMPARE, OR RELATE TO INDICATE THE ACTION OR
CONNECTION AMONG THE VARIABLES
• INDICATE THE PARTICIPANTS AND THE RESEARCH SITE FOR THE STUDY THREE
POPULAR FORMS ARE AVAILABLE IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: DESCRIPTIVE
QUESTIONS, RELATIONSHIP QUESTIONS, AND COMPARISON QUESTIONS.
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• BEGIN WITH HOW, WHAT, WHY

• USE A DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION
HOW FREQUENTLY DO AFRICAN AMERICAN FEEL ISOLATED ON COLLEGE CAMPUS?
• USE A RELATIONSHIP QUESTION
HOW DO FEELINGS OF ISOLATION RELATE TO (OR INFLUENCE) THE ETHNIC IDENTITY OF
AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE UNITED STATES?
• USE COMPARISON QUESTION
HOW DO AFRICAN AMERICANS AND EURO-AMERICANS COMPARE IN THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF
ETHNIC IDENTITY?
 QUANTITATIVE HYPOTHESIS

• HYPOTHESES NARROW THE PURPOSE STATEMENT IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH,

BUT HYPOTHESES ADVANCE A PREDICTION ABOUT WHAT THE RESEARCHER
EXPECTS TO FIND.
 NULL HYPOTHESES

• THERE IS NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES OR NO DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUPS
OF AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE OR A DEPENDENT VARIABLE.
• EXAMPLE:
THERE IS NO DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AT-RISK AND NON-AT-RISK STUDENTS IN TERMS OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ON MATH
TEST SCORES FOR THIRD-GRADE STUDENTS IN A MIDWEST SCHOOL
DISTRICT.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: AT-RISK STUDENTS (MEMBERS AND NONMEMBERS)
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT TEST SCORES
PARTICIPANTS: THIRD-GRADE STUDENTS
SITE: X SCHOOL DISTRICT
FORM AND LANGUAGE: NULL INDICATING NO DIFFERENCE
 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES

• USE AN ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS IF YOU THINK THERE WILL BE A DIFFERENCE

BASED ON RESULTS FROM PAST RESEARCH OR AN EXPLANATION OR THEORY
REPORTED IN THE LITERATURE.
• DIVIDED INTO TWO DIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
• NON-DIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
 DIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

• THE RESEARCHER PREDICTS THE DIRECTION OF A CHANGE, A DIFFERENCE, OR A RELATIONSHIP FOR VARIABLES IN THE
TOTAL POPULATION OF PEOPLE.

STUDENTS WHO PARTICIPATE IN DIRECT LEARNING IN FOUR ELEMENTARY

SCHOOLS WILL HAVE HIGHER ACHIEVEMENT SCORES THAN STUDENTS WHO
PARTICIPATE IN WHOLE-LANGUAGE LEARNING.
• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: LEARNING (DIRECT AND WHOLE LANGUAGE)
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE: ACHIEVEMENT TEST SCORES
• PARTICIPANTS: THIRD-GRADE STUDENTS
• RESEARCH SITE: FOUR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
• KEY INDICATOR: DIRECTIONAL, A PREDICTION IS IMPLIED
 NON-DIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS
• THE RESEARCHER PREDICTS A CHANGE, A DIFFERENCE, OR A RELATIONSHIP FOR VARIABLES IN A
POPULATION BUT DOES NOT INDICATE WHETHER THE DIRECTION OF THIS PREDICTION WILL BE POSITIVE OR
NEGATIVE, OR GREATER OR LESS.
• THERE IS A DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARSITY ATHLETES IN HIGH SCHOOL WHO SMOKE AND THOSE WHO DO
NOT SMOKE IN TERMS OF ATHLETIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS.
• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: USE OF TOBACCO (SMOKERS AND NONSMOKERS)
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE: ATHLETIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS
• PARTICIPANTS: VARSITY ATHLETES
• SITES: HIGH SCHOOLS
• KEY INDICATOR: THE WORDS “A DIFFERENCE,” BUT THE DIRECTION IS NOT SPECIFIED
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
PURPOSE STATEMENTS: IS A STATEMENT THAT
ADVANCES THE OVERALL DIRECTION OR
FOCUS FOR THE STUDY
• QUALITATIVE:
THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY IS TO EXPLORE
PARENT STORIES REGARDING INTERNET
COMMUNICATIONS WITH TEACHERS ABOUT THEIR
STUDENTS IN ONE MIDWESTERN SCHOOL DISTRICT.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS: QUESTIONS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
THAT NARROW THE PURPOSE STATEMENT TO SPECIFIC
QUESTIONS THAT RESEARCHERS SEEK TO ANSWER.

• QUALITATIVE:
WHAT TYPES OF INTERNET EXPERIENCES DO PARENTS HAVE WITH TEACHERS
ABOUT THE PERFORMANCE OF THE PARENTS’ CHILDREN?
 A CENTRAL PHENOMENON IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
• THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON IS THE CONCEPT OR A PROCESS EXPLORED IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.
• IN QUALITATIVE IT IS THE PURPOSE STATEMENT AND THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 EMERGING PROCESSES IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH

• AN EMERGING PROCESS INDICATES THAT THE INTENT OR

PURPOSE OF A STUDY AND THE QUESTIONS ASKED BY THE
RESEARCHER MAY CHANGE DURING THE PROCESS OF INQUIRY
BASED ON FEEDBACK OR RESPONSES FROM PARTICIPANTS.
• THE INTENT OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IS TO UNDERSTAND
AND EXPLORE THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON, NOT TO DEVELOP
A CONSENSUS OF OPINION FROM THE PEOPLE YOU STUDY
 QUALITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENTS

• A PURPOSE STATEMENT IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INDICATES THE INTENT TO

EXPLORE OR UNDERSTAND THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON WITH SPECIFIC
INDIVIDUALS AT A CERTAIN RESEARCH SITE.
• WRITTEN AS A SINGLE SENTENCE.
• INCLUDED AT THE END OF THE INTRODUCTION.
 GUIDELINES

• USE KEY IDENTIFIER WORDS TO SIGNAL THE READER, SUCH AS “THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY IS . . .”
• CONSIDER MENTIONING THAT THE STUDY IS “QUALITATIVE” SINCE AUDIENCES MAY NOT BE FAMILIAR WITH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.
• BECOME FAMILIAR WITH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS, AND INDICATE THE TYPE OF RESEARCH DESIGN
YOU PLAN TO USE IN YOUR STUDY.
• STATE THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON YOU PLAN TO EXPLORE.
• USE WORDS THAT CONVEY INTENT ABOUT THE EXPLORATION, SUCH AS EXPLORE, DISCOVER,
UNDERSTAND, AND DESCRIBE.
• MENTION THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE STUDY.
• REFER TO THE RESEARCH SITE WHERE YOU WILL STUDY THE PARTICIPANTS.
 SAMPLE

• THE PURPOSE OF THIS QUALITATIVE STUDY IS TO DESCRIBE CLASSROOM

LEARNING USING THE INTERNET FOR FIVE HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS
PARTICIPATING IN A SIGN LANGUAGE CLASS.
IF WE ANALYZE THIS EXAMPLE, WE FIND:
• THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON: CLASSROOM LEARNING USING THE INTERNET
• THE PARTICIPANTS: FIVE HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS
• THE RESEARCH SITE: A CLASS IN SIGN LANGUAGE AT X HIGH SCHOOL
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH HELP

NARROW THE PURPOSE OF A STUDY INTO SPECIFIC
QUESTIONS.
• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS ARE OPEN-ENDED,
GENERAL QUESTIONS THAT THE RESEARCHER WOULD
LIKE ANSWERED DURING THE STUDY.
 GUIDELINES (CRESWELL, 1998; 2009):
• EXPECT YOUR QUALITATIVE QUESTIONS TO CHANGE AND TO EMERGE DURING A STUDY TO
REFLECT THE PARTICIPANTS’ VIEWS OF THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON AND YOUR GROWING (AND
DEEPER) UNDERSTANDING OF IT.
• ASK ONLY A FEW, GENERAL QUESTIONS. FIVE TO SEVEN QUESTIONS ARE ENOUGH TO PERMIT
THE PARTICIPANTS TO SHARE INFORMATION. USING ONLY A FEW QUESTIONS PLACES EMPHASIS
ON LEARNING INFORMATION FROM PARTICIPANTS, RATHER THAN LEARNING WHAT THE
RESEARCHER SEEKS TO KNOW.
• ASK QUESTIONS THAT USE NEUTRAL, EXPLORATORY LANGUAGE AND REFRAIN FROM
CONVEYING AN EXPECTED DIRECTION (OR NONDIRECTIONAL OUTCOME IF YOU ARE THINKING
LIKE A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHER). FOR EXAMPLE, USE ACTION VERBS SUCH AS GENERATE,
DISCOVER, UNDERSTAND, DESCRIBE, AND EXPLORE INSTEAD OF WORDS CONVEYING CAUSE-
AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS, SUCH AS EFFECT, RELATE, COMPARE, DETERMINE, CAUSE, AND
INFLUENCE.
• DESIGN AND WRITE TWO TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS: THE CENTRAL
QUESTION AND SUBQUESTIONS.
 THE CENTRAL QUESTION

• THE CENTRAL QUESTION IS THE OVERARCHING QUESTION YOU EXPLORE IN A

RESEARCH STUDY.
• STRATEGIES IN MAKING CENTRAL QUESTION:
1. BEGIN WITH THE WORD HOW OR WHAT
2. SPECIFY THE CENTRAL PHENOMENON
3. IDENTIFY THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE STUDY
4. MENTION THE RESEARCH SITE FOR THE STUDY
 SAMPLE SCRIPT

WHAT IS CREATIVITY FOR FIVE STUDENTS AT ROOSEVELT HIGH SCHOOL?

• BEGINNING WORD: “WHAT”
• CENTRAL PHENOMENON: CREATIVITY
• PARTICIPANTS: FIVE STUDENTS
• RESEARCH SITE: ROOSEVELT HIGH SCHOOL
 SUB QUESTIONS

• SUB QUESTIONS REFI NE THE CENTRAL QUESTION INTO SUB-QUESTIONS TO BE

ADDRESSED IN THE RESEARCH.
• ISSUE SUB-QUESTIONS ARE QUESTIONS THAT NARROW THE FOCUS OF THE
CENTRAL QUESTION INTO SPECIFIC QUESTIONS (OR ISSUES) THE RESEARCHER
SEEKS TO LEARN FROM PARTICIPANTS IN A STUDY.
• WHAT IS SELF-ESTEEM FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS? (CENTRAL QUESTION)
• WHAT IS SELF-ESTEEM AS SEEN THROUGH FRIENDS? (SUB QUESTION)
WHAT IS SELF-ESTEEM FOR THE PARTICIPANT’S
FAMILY? (SUB QUESTION)
WHAT IS SELF-ESTEEM AS EXPERIENCED IN
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES IN SCHOOL?
(SUB QUESTION)
 PROCEDURAL SUBQUESTIONS

• PROCEDURAL SUB QUESTIONS INDICATE THE STEPS TO BE USED IN ANALYZING

THE DATA IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY.
• TO STUDY THIS CENTRAL QUESTION, THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS WILL BE
ADDRESSED IN ORDER IN THIS STUDY:
(WHAT QUESTION WILL BE ANSWERED FI RST? )
(WHAT QUESTION WILL BE ANSWERED SECOND? )
(WHAT QUESTION WILL BE ANSWERED THIRD? )
• WHAT ARE STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES WITH WEAPONS IN HIGH SCHOOLS?
(CENTRAL QUESTION)
• WHAT ARE THE CATEGORIES OF EXPERIENCES OF STUDENTS? (SUBQUESTION)
• WHAT PROCESS OCCURS THAT REFLECTS THESE EXPERIENCES? (SUBQUESTION)
• WHAT PROPOSITIONS OR HYPOTHESES REFLECT THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE
CATEGORIES? (SUBQUESTION)
THANKS