Reconstructiv

e Memory
Reliability of cognitive
processes
 Both encoding (Bransford &
Johnson) and retrieval (Anderson
& Pichert) of memories are
What we influenced by schemas.
know Memories can be distorted over
already time (Bartlett).
Theory of reconstructive memory
• Remembering is not just the passive retrieval of
information from long term storage.
• It is an active process which involves the
reconstruction of information.
• This is very relevant to the real-world situation of
eyewitness testimony.
Loftus and Palmer (1974)

• The aim of the research was to investigate

whether the use of leading questions would
affect the estimation of speed.
• This study consists of two experiments.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 1
• 45 students participated in the experiment. 
• They were divided into five groups of nine students. 
• Seven films of traffic accidents were shown, and the length of the films ranged
from 5 to 30 seconds. 
• The study was an independent samples design; each participant watched all 7
films.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 1
After each film, participants answered a few questions,
including a speed estimate:
"About how fast were the cars going when they ______
each other?"
• hit
• smashed
• collided
• bumped
• contacted
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 1
Results
Table 1 Speed estimates for the Verbs used in Experiment 1​

Verb Mean speed estimate (mph)

Smashed 40.8
Collided 39.3
Bumped 38.1
Hit 34.0
Contacted 31.8
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 1
Conclusion
Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed that post-event information (i.e., the leading
question) may alter the memory of an event (how fast the car was going).
They considered two competing explanations: 
1. Response bias = where it is impossible to be sure about the answer,
participants take the hint provided by the verb used (it implies something
about the severity of the crash) and adjust their guess up or down accordingly.
This does not imply a change in memory.
2. Memory change = the participant’s memory of the event has changed in line
with the verb used to describe the car crash. Their estimate of speed is based
on this revised memory.
Loftus and Palmer (1974) -
experiment 2
• 150 students participated in this experiment. 
• They were randomly allocated to three
conditions. 
• They were shown a 1-minute film depicting a
multiple car accident lasting around 4 seconds.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 2
After watching the film, participants answered a
few questions, including a speed estimate.
• Group 1 was asked ”About how fast were the
cars going when they hit each other?” 
• Group 2 was asked ”About how fast were the
cars going when they smashed each other?” 
• Group 3 was not asked to estimate speed.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 2
• One week later, participants answered another set
of questions about the accident.
• The critical question was: ”Did you see any broken
glass?” 
• The participants simply had to answer “yes” or
“no”. 
• In fact, there was no broken glass in the accident,
but the researchers assumed that broken glass was
associated with high speed.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 2
Results
Table 2 Speed estimates for the verbs used in the first part of the second experiment​
Verb Mean Speed Estimates (mph)
Smashed 10.46
Hit 8.00

Table 3 ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ answers related to the critical question: Did you see any broken glass?​
Response Smashed Hit Control
Yes 16 7 6
No 34 43 44
Loftus & Palmer (1974) - experiment 2
Conclusion
• The verb used to describe the crash influenced how
participants remembered it. 
• In other words, the memory of the event was
reconstructed to account for the new post-event
information.
• The details that formed part of this memory (i.e.,
whether or not there was broken glass) were also
reconstructed in a way that was consistent with the
post-event information.
 Evaluation of Loftus
and Palmer (1974)
Pair Activity

Internal validity Conclusion made are a correct interpretation because the variables
defined were accurately and appropriately manipulated and measured in
a representative sample.

External validity or The results obtained in the study can be applied to situations outside of
the laboratory and to the intended target population.
generalizability
Evaluation of Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Internal validity Conclusion made are a correct interpretation because the variables
defined were accurately and appropriately manipulated and measured in
a representative sample.

• The situation and materials are well controlled - minimizing extraneous variables.
• The procedure and instructions are standardized - minimizing experimenter effects and demand
characteristics.
• The IV and DV are clearly operationalized - allowing for a cause effect relationship to be inferred.
Participants are randomly assigned to conditions - minimizing the effect of participant variables.

External validity The results obtained in the study can be applied to situations outside of
the laboratory and to the intended target population.
or generalizability
• The study lacks ecological validity - Watching a video of a car crash is not the same as witnessing
a real car crash; there are a lot more emotions involved and we experience it quite differently.
• Generalizability is poor - The sample size is small (exp 1) and university students may differ from
the larger population, for instance, being inexperienced drivers and unfamiliar with car speeds.
 Comparing laboratory
research with case studies
Discuss in groups of real-life incidents
of four or five
• What is different about witnessing a car crash
in real life compared to watching it on video?
• What are the barriers to investigating the
reliability of real-life eyewitness testimony?
• What post-event information may be
introduced in the normal course of events
after witnessing a crime or serious incident?
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
• The aim of the study was to determine
whether leading questions would affect the
memory of eyewitnesses at a real crime
scene. 
• Similar to Loftus & Palmer's (1974) study,
but in this case, the event that they
observed was real and had an emotional
impact on those that observed it.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
• The crime happened in Vancouver. 
• A thief entered a gun shop and tied up the owner before stealing money
and guns from the shop. 
• The owner freed himself, picked up a revolver and went outside the shop
to take the thief’s license number.
• The thief had not yet entered his car and shot him twice.
• After a pause, the shop owner discharged all six shots from his revolver
and killed the thief.
• As the incident took place in front of the shop, there were eyewitnesses -
21 were interviewed by the police.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) - Procedure
• 13 of the eyewitnesses agreed to be interviewed as part of a study. 
• Two leading questions were used. 
• Half the group was asked if they saw "a" broken headlight on the getaway car. The
other half were asked if they saw "the" broken headlight. In fact, there was no
broken headlight. 
• The second question asked half the group if they saw "the" yellow panel on the
car, and the other half was asked if they saw "a" yellow panel on the car (the panel
was actually blue). 
• They were also asked to rate their stress on the day of the event on a seven-point
scale.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) - Results
• It was found that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable. 
• They recalled a large amount of accurate detail that could be confirmed by the
original police reports (between 79% and 84%). 
• They also did not make errors as a result of the leading questions. 
• 10 out of 13 of them said there was no broken headlight or yellow quarter panel.

These results seem to

disprove Loftus & Palmer.
 Evaluation of
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
Pair Activity

Is this an experiment? If so, which type? Consider where it took place, if there
was an IV to be manipulated, if there were any uncontrolled variables.

What type of sampling was used? Explain why.

What kind of data was collected?

Can the results be generalized? Explain why.

Are there any ethical issues?

 • The study relies on quantitative data with
two conditions.
• The study also carries out interviews with
the participants and then compares the
information from their interviews to the
What type of original police reports. 
• The research is focusing on a specific crime
study is this? (or case) and uses method and data
triangulation. 
• Thus, this could be considered a case study. 
In fact, that is the research method that the
researchers identify in their own publication
of the study.
 • The findings and conclusions of Loftus and Palmer (1974) suggest
that false memories can be generated by post-event information.
• The suggestive power of a verb used to describe a car crash
could result in a memory containing false elements, e.g.,

False
broken glass.
• Loftus and Pickrell (1995) attempted to implant completely new
false memories in participants and succeeded in about 25% of

Memories cases.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VTF7FUAoGWw&ab_cha
nnel=chrislivesey
• Elizabeth Loftus has made a career as an expert witness in court
cases where she challenges the memories of key witnesses based
on her research. You can find out more in this TED talk:
• https://www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_loftus_how_reliable_is_
your_memory?language=en