EVAPORATION

KARYLLE TAJ USMAN

KRIZA MARIE GIMENEZ
WANIE PATAGOC
KIMBERLY TAÑARA
What is
Evaporation?

- Evaporation is the
process of conversion of a
liquid from its surface into
a gaseous phase below its
boiling point.
 It occurs when individual
liquid particles at the exposed
surface of the liquid absorb just
enough energy to overcome the
force of attraction with other
liquid particles.
If the surface particles move
in the right direction, they will
pull away from the liquid and
move into the air.
FACTORS CONTROLLING THE
EVAPORATION PROCESS
• Nature of Liquid
A liquid having weaker interparticle attractive forces evaporate
at a faster rate because less energy is required to overcome the
attractive forces.
• Surface Area of the Liquid
- If the surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation
increases because the high energy particles from the liquid can go
into gas phase only through a surface.
• Temperature
- The rate of evaporation is directly dependent on the
temperature it’s exposed to. The more the temperature, the more
liquid it’s exposed to.
• Humidity in the Air
- The air around us contains water
vapor or moisture. The amount of water
present in the air is referred to as
humidity. The air cannot hold more than
a definite amount of water vapor at a
given temperature.
• Wind Speed
- This is because with increase in the
speed of the wind, the particles of water
vapor move away with the wind
resulting in a decrease in the amount of
vapor in the atmosphere.
Estimation of reservoir evaporation from pan
evaporation and related meteorological data
The quantity and quality of reservoir water resources are
essential to agriculture, domestic, industrial water supply,
fisheries, recreation, hydropower and aquatic ecosystem.
Reservoir water availability is regulated by the water
balance and energy budget processes, which in turn are
closely tied to climate variations, land use changes and
other human influences.
THERE ARE TWO APPROACHES TO ESTIMATING
EVAPORATION:
Direct method – evaporation is directly measured using an
evaporation pan
Indirect method – include estimations of evaporation
using empirical models that are based on meteorological
data.

CHALLENGES OF ESTIMATING
EVAPORATION
• Sunken – collects more trash; difficult to install, clean and repair.
• The evaporation from a pan floating in a lake more nearly approximate
evaporation from the lake than that from an on-shore installation.
Observational difficulties are prevalent with floating pans-splashing
frequently renders the data unreliable--and installation and operational
expense is excessive.
The floating evaporation pan is supported by a 6 x 3m PVC pipe frame, which
anchored in dam or lake.
• The principal advantages of surface exposure are economy and ease of
installation, operation, and maintenance.

Pan Observations: (three methods for pan installations)

• To increase our knowledge of the phenomenon
• To estimate missing pan records
• To derive estimated data for stations at which pan observations are
not made
• To test the reliability and representativeness of observed data
• To aid the study of lake-pan relations.

Pan Evaporation and Meteorological

Factors:
• A common and relatively simple approach for estimating
evaporation is the measurement of standard meteorological
parameters (net radiation, air temperature and humidity and
wind speed) and the use of Penman Equation (Penman,1948)
or Priestley-Taylor.
• Penman is a method for estimating evaporation from free-
water surfaces which combined energy-budget and mass-
balance methods.

How do you measure evaporation in a

reservoir?
• Energy Balance Method – is a tool that permits to directly predict
resonances for a conservative system with nonlinearities from its
nonlinear modes.
• Aerodynamic Method – governed by the humidity gradient and wind
speed.
• Combination Method – refers to the simultaneous solution of the
equations of surface energy balance and turbulent transport of heat and
water vapor, sometimes with allowance for internal plant resistance to
transpiration.

Three Methods of Estimating Evaporations:

• When conditions are such that satisfactory results cannot obtained by applying a water budget,
evaporation from an existing reservoir can be determined by either empirical mass transfer or the
energy-budget approach.
• The operation of a pan station (near the reservoir, but not so close as to be materially affected by
it) is relatively inexpensive and should provide satisfactory estimates of annual reservoir
evaporation.
• In reservoir design, the engineer is really concerned with the increased loss at the reservoir site
resulting from the construction of the dam, reservoir evaporation Iess evapotranspiration under
natural condition . Thus in humid areas construction of a dam causes only a nominal increase in
water loss. If reliable stream flow data are available at the dam site and immediately above the
reservoir both before and after construction, the resulting average increased loss can be
determined by direct computation, provided that climatic condition are comparable for the two
periods.

Summary and appraisal of techniques for estimating

reservoir evaporation:
INCREASED WATER SUPPLY THROUGH
REDUCE EVAPORATION
 PHYSICAL METHOD OF EVAPORATION REDUCTION

Floating continuous covers -floating

continuous covers generally make an
impermeable barrier that floats on the water
surface to reduce evaporation. polystyrene, wax
and foam have been tested as used materials for
making floating continuous overs, but
polyethylene plastic has proved to be the most
acceptable and durable material for covers of
this type. tests have shown that floating sheets
such as e-vapcaps can reduce over 95%
evaporation from open water reservoirs
 Floating modular covers -As opposed to the
continuous floating covers, the modular
floating covers are individual units that can
float freely and do not completely cover the
water surface; therefore, they increase the
transfer of dissolved oxygen DO through the
open gaps formed between them. Aquacaps
and shade balls are examples of the used
floating modular covers.

Suspended Covers
creating shade is an effective method to control
evaporation. shade structures are usually suspended above
the water surface with the use of cables.  shade structures
reduce solar radiation and wind speed, and act as a trap for
humid air between the shade structure and the water
surface.  all of these factors help reduce evaporation rates
by up to 75% without affecting water quality or aquatic
life. 
 CHEMICAL METHODS OF EVAPORATION REDUCTION

Chemical mono-layers are single molecular layers (~2

millionths of a mm thick) of insoluble or sparingly
soluble compounds. when applied to water these
compounds form an invisible film that can be used to
cover a reservoir and block evaporation. chemical
monolayers reduce evaporation by creating an insoluble
CETYL
film of a single layer of packed fatty alcohol molecules
ALCOHOL
that acts as a physical barrier to water molecules escaping
the surface (pores smaller than h2o) and a possible shield
from air movements interacting with water surface
molecules.
 METHOD OF BIOLOGICAL COVERS

Floating plants floating aquatic plants such as water lily,

small duckweed, great duckweed and water meal can
reduce the evaporation of water reservoirs by preventing
the connection between air and the boundary layer of
water.

Wind Breakers -wind is one of the most important factors

that affect the rate of evaporation from water surfaces.
planting of trees normal to the direction of windward is an
effective method for reducing of evaporation losses.
Thank you!