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 Valid Argument Invalid Argument
(Premises guaranteeing (Premises do not guarantee
conclusion) conclusion)
True premises If Harry loved Dumbledore, Some Americans work in business.
then Harry was sad when Donald Trump is an American. So,
True conclusion
Dumbledore died. So, Harry Donald Trump works in business.
was sad when Dumbledore
died.
False premises All sharks are birds. All birds Every genius is a Mathematician.
are politicians. So, all sharks Homestar runner is a
False conclusion
are politicians. Mathematician. So, Homestar
runner is a genius.
False premises All dogs are ants. All ants are Everything coloured is red. Steve
mammals. So, all dogs are Harvey is a mortician. So, Steve
True conclusion
mammals. Harvey is hilarious.
True premises All dogs are animals. All cats are
animals. Hence, all dogs are cats.
False conclusion

Unknown All of the Cappadocians Some hylidae are heterophoric.

accepted perichoresis.Basil Maggie is heterophoric. So, Maggie
truth value
was a Cappadocians. So, Basil is a hylidae.
accepted perichoresis. 13
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 Arguments

Valid Arguments Invalid

Arguments

Valid Valid
argument argument All invalid
With all With at arguments
premises least one
true are false are unsound
sound premises 16
are unsound
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Example #1
If Tom lives in Kingston, then Tom lives in Jamaica.
Tom lives in Kingston.
----------------------------------------------------------------
So, Tom lives in Jamaica. 28
 Affirming the Consequent (AC)
If A then B Conditional If A then B

A Antecedent B Unlike MP, AC is an invalid

---------- ---------- argument form.
Consequent So, A
So, B
Counter-example
Example #1 If Tom lives in Kingston then Tom lives in Jamaica. (T)
Tom lives in Jamaica (T)
If Tom lives in Kingston, then ------------------------------------------------------
Tom lives in Jamaica. Tom lives in Kingston. (F)
Tom lives in Kingston.
----------------------------------------- A common mistake in formal reasoning (such as
Tom lives in Jamaica. AC) is a formal fallacy.
Example #2
If John is lying, then you are innocent and John’s mother is guilty.
John is lying.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You are innocent and John’s mother is guilty.

Both arguments have the valid form modus ponens. So, both arguments are valid.
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Example #1
If Tom lives in Kingston, then Tom lives in Jamaica.
It is not true that Tom lives in Jamaica.
-----------------------------------------------------
It is not true that Tom lives in Kingston.
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2. Modus Tollens (MT) Denying the Antecedent (DA)
If A then
If A then B Conditional Unlike MT, DA
B
Not B Negation of Consequent is an invalid
Not A argument form.
---------- ------------
So, Not A Negation of Antecedent So, Not B
Counter-example
Valid argument, in the form of MT
If Tom lives in Kings, then Tom lives in Ja. (T)
Since the form is valid, this individual argument is
valid by virtue of having the valid form. Tom does NOT live in Kingston. (T)
-------------------------------------------------------
Example #1 So, Tom does NOT live in Jamaica. (F)
If Tom lives in Kings, then Tom lives in Ja.
Tom does NOT live in Jamaica. A common mistake in formal reasoning
---------------------------------------------------------------
(suFormal fallacy. Invalid
-
So, Tom does NOT live in Kingston.

Invalid argument, in the form of DA

Example #2
If you are healthy or wealthy, then you are lucky.
It is not true that you are healthy or wealthy.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
You are not lucky.
32
3. Hypothetical Syllogism (HS)
If A then B Conditional • A conditional statement is also called a
If B then C Conditional “hypothetical statement ”.
---------- • A syllogism is a three-step argument, i.e., an
So, if A then C. Conditional argument with two premises and one
conclusion.
Example #2
If Tom loves his dog, then Tom wants his dog to be happy.
If Tom wants his dog to be happy, then Tom will walk his dog everyday.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
So, if Tom loves his dog, then Tom will walk his dog everyday.

Example #3
If everybody has what they want and nobody has what they don’t want, then everybody is happy.
If everybody is happy then I am happy.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If everybody has what they want and nobody has what they don’t want, then I am happy .

Since both arguments have the valid form hypothetical syllogism, both arguments are valid.
Disjunctive Syllogism can take two (2) forms:

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4. Disjunctive Syllogism (DS)
Either A or B Either A or B Disjunction • The statement “A or B” is called
Not A Not B Negation of One Disjunct
the “ disjunction ” of the simpler
---------- ---------- statements “A” and “B”.
So, B So, A The Other Disjunct • The simpler statements “A” and
“B” (which make up the
Example #1 disjunction) are called the “
Either Tom is Mary’s friend OR Tom is my friend. disjuncts ”.
Tom is NOT Mary’s friend.
----------------------------------------------------------
Tom is my friend.

Example #2
Either Mary is happily married as well as busy at work OR she is having an affair.
Mary is NOT having an affair.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mary is happily married as well as busy at work.

• In its inclusive sense, the disjunction “A or B” means “A or B or both”.

• In its exclusive sense, the disjunction “A or B” means “A or B but not both”.
• The argument form, disjunctive syllogism, is valid for both senses of the disjunction.
• NOTE : In this unit, we use the term “or” in its inclusive sense, unless otherwise specified.
It combines both conditional and disjunctive statements

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5. Constructive Dilemma (CD)
Either A or B Disjunction
If A, then C. Conditional
If B, then D Conditional Example #1
----------
So, C or D Disjunction Either I take a taxi or I take a bus.
If I take a taxi then I will be too early.
If I take a bus then I will be too late.
--------------------------------------------------
So, I will be too early or I will be too late.

Example #2
Either You keep your promise or you don’t keep your promise.
If you keep your promise then you will be happy.
If you don’t keep your promise then you will be unhappy.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You will be happy or you will be unhappy.
PREM 1: If Jenny is a neurologist, then she is a doctor. PREM 1: If A then B.
PREM 2: Jenny is NOT a doctor. PREM 2: Not B.
CONCL: So, Jenny is a neurologist. CONCL: So, A.

PREM 1: If Usain Bolt is less than 2 ft tall, then he is less than 3 ft tall. [True]
PREM 2: Usain Bolt is NOT less than 3 feet tall. [True]
CONCL: So, Usain Bolt is less than 2 feet tall. [False]
.