LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT, 18e

G. TYLER MILLER • SCOTT E. SPOOLMAN

Air
Pollution
©©
Cengage Learning
Cengage 2015
Learning 2015
Core Case Study: South Asia’s
Massive Brown Clouds

• The South Asian Brown Clouds

– Stretch across much of India, Bangladesh,
China, and the western Pacific Ocean
• Air pollution connects the world
– Pollutants can circle the globe in about two
weeks
• Stricter air pollution standards and
continued shifts towards cleaner fuels are
needed
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The South Asia's Brown Clouds (cont'd.)

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Fig. 18-1a, p. 474
18-1: What is the Nature of the
Atmosphere?

• The two innermost layers of the

atmosphere
– Troposphere – supports life
– Stratosphere – contains the protective ozone
layer

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The Atmosphere Consists of
Several Layers

• Atmosphere – thin blanket of gases

surrounding the Earth
• Density – number of gas molecules per
unit of air volume
– Density decreases as you move higher in the
atmosphere

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 Atmospheric pressure (millibars)

Temperature
Thermosphere
Altitude (kilometers)

Altitude (miles)
Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Ozone layer

Troposphere
Pressure
(Sea
level) Pressure = 1,000 millibars
© Cengage Learning 2015 at ground level
Temperature (˚C) Fig. 18-2, p. 475
Air Movements in the Troposphere Play a
Key Role in Earth’s Weather and Climate

• Troposphere
– 75–80% of Earth’s air mass
– Closest to Earth's surface
– Composition of gases
• 78% nitrogen; 21% oxygen
– Rising and falling air currents and greenhouse
gases play a major role in weather and
climate

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The Stratosphere Is Our Global Sunscreen

• Stratosphere
– Similar composition to the troposphere except
that it contains:
• Much less water
• Ozone layer (O3)
– Filters 95% of harmful UV radiation
– Allows life to exist on land

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18-2: What Are the Major Outdoor
Pollution Problems?

• Pollutants mix in the air to form industrial

smog
– Primarily as a result of burning coal and
photochemical smog
– Caused by emissions from motor vehicles,
industrial facilities, and power plants

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Air Pollution Comes from Natural and
Human Sources

• Air pollution – presence of chemicals in

the atmosphere
– Concentrations high enough to harm
organisms, ecosystems, human-made
materials, and to alter climate
• Natural sources
– Dust blown by wind
– Pollutants from wildfires and volcanoes
– Volatile organics released by plants
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Air Pollution Comes from Natural and
Human Sources (cont’d.)

• Human sources
– Mostly in industrialized and/or urban areas
– Stationary sources – power plants and
industrial facilities
– Mobile sources – motor vehicles

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Some Pollutants in the Atmosphere
Combine to Form Other Pollutants

• Primary pollutants
– Emitted directly into the air
• Secondary pollutants
– From reactions of primary pollutants

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Sources and Types of Air Pollutants

Primary Pollutants
CO CO2 Secondary Pollutants
SO2 NO NO N2O
2
CH4 and most SO3
other hydrocarbons HNO3 H2SO4
Most suspended particles H2O2 O3 PANs
Most NO3– and SO42– salts

Natural
Source Stationary Human Source

Human Source
Mobile

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Fig. 18-3, p. 477
What Are the Major Outdoor Air
Pollutants?

• Carbon oxides
– Carbon monoxide (CO); carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Nitrogen oxides (NO) and nitric acid
(HNO3)
– Acid deposition; photochemical smog
• Does the benefit of the lessened
atmospheric warming due to the South
Asian Brown Clouds outweigh their
harmful effects?
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What Are the Major Outdoor Air
Pollutants? (cont’d.)

• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfuric acid

(H2SO4)
• Particulates
– Suspended particulate matter
• Ozone
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
– Methane

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Chemical Reactions That Form Major
Outdoor Air Pollutants

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Table 18-1, p. 480
Acid Deposition

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Fig. 18-4, p. 478
Case Study: Lead Is a Highly
Toxic Pollutant

• In air, water, soil, plants, and animals

• Does not break down in the environment
• Impacts human health and environment
– Children are most vulnerable
– Can cause death, brain damage, and
paralysis
• How can we reduce lead in the
environment?
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Burning Coal Produces Industrial Smog

• Chemical composition of industrial smog

– Sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid, and suspended
solid particles
• Formed from the burning of fossil fuels
– Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and soot
result
• How are pollutants formed from burning
coal and oil?

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 Ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4]

Ammonia (NH3)

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Water vapor (H2O) Carbon monoxide (CO)

and
Sulfur trioxide (SO 3 ) carbon dioxide (CO2)

Oxygen (O2)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Burning coal and oil

Oxygen (O2)

Sulfur (S) in Carbon (C) in

© Cengage Learning 2015 coal and oil coal and oil Stepped Art
Fig. 18-8, p. 481
Sunlight Plus Cars Equals Photochemical
Smog

• Photochemical smog
• VOCs + NOx + Heat + Sunlight yields:
– Ground level O3 and other photochemical
oxidants
– Aldehydes
– Other secondary pollutants

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 PANS and other pollutants Photochemical Smog
Volatile organic
compounds
(VOCs)
Ozone (O3)
Oxygen (O2)
Nitric oxide (NO) +
Oxygen atom (O)

Water vapor (H2O) UV radiation Hydrocarbons

Peroxyacyl
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) nitrates (PANs)
Oxygen (O2)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Oxygen (O2) Burning fossil fuels

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Nitrogen (N) in
fossil fuel
Fig. 18-9, p. 483
Several Factors Can Decrease or Increase
Outdoor Air Pollution

• Outdoor air pollution may be decreased

by:
– Settling of particles due to gravity
– Rain and snow
– Salty sea spray from the ocean
– Winds
– Chemical reactions

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Several Factors Can Decrease or Increase
Outdoor Air Pollution (cont’d.)

• Outdoor air pollution may be increased by:

– Urban buildings
– Hills and mountains
– High temperatures
– Emissions of VOCs from certain trees and
plants
– The grasshopper effect
– Temperature inversions
• Warm air above cool air prevents mixing
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A Temperature Inversion

Warmer air Descending warm air mass

Inversion layer Inversion layer

Sea breeze
Increasing
altitude

Decreasing temperature

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Fig. 18-11, p. 484
18-3: What Is Acid Deposition and
Why Is It a Problem?

• Caused mainly by coal-burning power

plants and motor vehicle emissions
• Threatens human health, aquatic life and
ecosystems, forests, and human-built
structures in some regions

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Acid Disposition Is a Serious Regional Air
Pollution Problem

• Acid deposition
– Sulfuric acid and nitric acid compounds
– Wet deposition – rain, snow, fog, cloud vapor
– Dry deposition – particles
• Substances remain in the atmosphere 2-
14 days
• What are some ways in which your daily
activities contribute to acid deposition?
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 Natural Capital Degradation: Acid
Deposition
Wind

Transformation to
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3) Windborne ammonia gas
and some soil particles partially
neutralize acids and form dry sulfate Wet acid deposition
and nitrate salts
(droplets of H2SO4 and
HNO3 dissolved
Nitric oxide (NO)
in rain and snow)
Sulfur dioxide Dry acid deposition
(SO2) and NO (sulfur dioxide gas and
particles of sulfate and
nitrate salts)
Acid
fog
Lakes in shallow
Lakes in deep soil soil low in limestone
high in limestone become acidic
are buffered

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Fig. 18-12, p. 485
Current and Possible Future Acid Rain
Problem Areas

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Fig. 18-13, p. 486
Acid Deposition Has a Number of Harmful
Effects

• Human health
– Respiratory disorders; toxins from fish
• Release of toxic metals
• Aquatic ecosystems
– Lowers pH and kills organisms
• Leaching of soil nutrients
• Forest damage
• Damage to buildings, etc.
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 Solutions
Acid Deposition

Prevention Cleanup

Reduce coal use Add lime to

and burn only neutralize
low-sulfur coal acidified lakes
Use natural gas
and renewable Add phosphate
energy resources fertilizer to
in place of coal neutralize
acidified lakes
Remove SO2 and NOx
from smokestack
gases and remove Add lime to
NOx from motor neutralize
vehicular exhaust acidified soils
Tax SO2 emissions

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Fig. 18-15, p. 488
18-4: What Are the Major Indoor Air
Pollution Problems?

• The most threatening indoor air pollutants:

– Smoke and soot from the burning of wood
and coal in cooking fires (mostly in less-
developed countries)
– Cigarette smoke
– Chemicals used in building materials and
cleaning products

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Indoor Air Pollution Is a Serious
Problem

• In developing countries
– Indoor burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop
residues, coal
– Greatest risk to low-income populations
• In developed countries
– Indoor air pollution is greater than outdoor air
pollution
– Chemicals used in building materials

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Chloroform Source:
Chlorine-treated water in hot
showers
Possible threat: Cancer
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Source: Aerosol sprays
Threat: Dizziness,
irregular breathing
Nitrogen oxides
Source: Unvented gas
stoves and kerosene
heaters, woodstoves
Threat: Irritated lungs,
children's colds,
headaches
Particulates
Source: Pollen, pet
dander, dust mites,
cooking smoke
particles
Threat: Irritated lungs,
asthma attacks, itchy
eyes, runny nose, lung
disease
Asbestos
Source: Pipe insulation,
vinyl ceiling and floor tiles
Threat: Lung disease, lung
cancer
© Cengage Learning 2015irregular heartbeat, death
Para-dichlorobenzene Tetrachloroethylene
Source: Air fresheners, Source: Dry-cleaning Formaldehyde
mothball crystals fluid fumes on Source: Furniture stuffing,
Threat: Cancer clothes Threat: paneling, particleboard,
Nerve disorders, foam insulation
damage to liver and Threat: Irritation of eyes,
kidneys, possible throat, skin, and lungs;
cancer nausea; dizziness
Styrene
Source: Carpets,
plastic products
Threat: Kidney
and liver damage
Benzo-α-pyrene
Source: Tobacco
smoke, woodstoves
Threat: Lung cancer
Radon-222
Source:
Tobacco smoke Radioactive soil
Source: Cigarettes and rock
Threat: Lung cancer, surrounding
respiratory ailments, foundation, water
heart disease supply
Carbon monoxide Threat: Lung
Source: Faulty furnaces,
cancer
unvented gas stoves and Methylene chloride
kerosene heaters, Source: Paint strippers
woodstoves Threat: and thinners
Headaches, drowsiness, Threat: Nerve disorders,
diabetes
Fig. 18-17, p. 489
Indoor Air Pollution Is a Serious
Problem (cont’d.)

• Indoor air pollution risk

– Children under five and the elderly
– Sick
– Pregnant women
– People with respiratory disorders or heart
problems
– Smokers
– Factory workers

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Indoor Air Pollution Is a Serious
Problem (cont’d.)

• Four most dangerous indoor air pollutants

in more-developed countries
– Tobacco smoke
– Formaldehyde
– Radioactive radon-222 gas
– Very small (ultrafine) particles
• Other indoor pollutants
– Pesticide residues, lead particles, air-borne
spores (mold, mildew)
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Case Study: Radioactive Radon Gas

• Sources
– Underground deposits of certain minerals
• Human health risks
– Decays into Polonium-210
• Can expose the lungs to high amounts of radiation
• How can you test for and correct a radon
problem?

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Case Study: Radioactive Radon Gas (cont’d.)
Outlet vents for furnace, dryer, and woodstove

Open
window
Cracks in wall
Openings
around pipes

Slab joints

Wood stove
Cracks Sump
Clothes
Furnace dryer in floor pump

Radon-222 gas
Uranium-238

Soil

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Fig. 18-19, p. 491
18-5: What Are the Health Effects of Air
Pollution?

• Air pollution can contribute to:

– Asthma
– Chronic bronchitis
– Emphysema
– Lung cancer
– Heart attack
– Stroke

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Your Body’s Natural Defenses Against Air
Pollution Can Be Overwhelmed

• The respiratory system protects from air

pollutants through:
– Hair
– Cilia
– Mucus
• Effects of smoking and prolonged air
pollution exposure
– Chronic bronchitis
– Emphysema
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 Major Components of the Human
Respiratory System
Epithelial
cell
Nasal cavity Cilia

Oral cavity
Goblet cell
Pharynx (throat) (secreting
mucus)
Trachea (windpipe) Mucus

Bronchus Bronchioles

Right lung Alveolar

duct
Bronchioles
Alveolar
sac Alveoli
(sectioned)

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Fig. 18-21, p. 492
Air Pollution Is a Big Killer

• 3.2 million deaths per year worldwide

– Mostly in Asia; 1.2 million in China
– 150,000 to 350,000 in the United States
• EPA proposed stricter emission standards
for diesel-powered vehicles
– 125,000 die in U.S. each year from diesel
fumes
– Emissions from one truck = 150 cars

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Premature Deaths from Air Pollution in the
U.S.

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Fig. 18-22, p. 493
18-6: How Should We Deal with Air
Pollution?

• Legal, economic, and technological tools

can help us to clean up air pollution
• However, the best solution is to prevent it

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Laws and Regulations Can Reduce
Outdoor Air Pollution

• United States
– Clean Air Acts: 1970, 1977, and 1990 created
regulations enforced by states and cities
• EPA
– National ambient air quality standards for six
outdoor pollutants
• Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
suspended particulate matter, ozone, and lead

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Laws and Regulations Can Reduce
Outdoor Air Pollution (cont’d.)

• EPA’s national emission standards for 188

hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)
• Toxic Release Inventory (TRI)
• Some successes in the United States
– Decrease in emissions
– Use of low-sulfur diesel fuel
• Less-developed countries
– Have more challenges with reducing air
pollution
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We Can Use the Marketplace to Reduce
Outdoor Air Pollution

• Emission trading or cap-and-trade

program
– Success depends on:
• How low initial cap is set
• How often it is lowered

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There Are Many Ways to Reduce
Outdoor Air Pollution

• Stationary source air pollution

• Motor vehicle air pollution
• Less-developed countries are far behind
developed countries in implementing
solutions
– Non-existent and/or weak laws

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 Solutions

Stationary Source Air Pollution

Prevention Reduction or
Disposal
Burn low-sulfur Disperse emissions
coal or remove (which can increase
sulfur from coal downwind
pollution) with tall
smokestacks

Convert coal to a
liquid or gaseous Remove pollutants
fuel from smokestack
gases

Switch from coal to

natural gas and Tax each unit of
renewables pollution produced
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Fig. 18-25, p. 495
 Solutions
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution

Prevention Cleanup

Walk bike or use Require emission

mass transit control devices

Inspect car
Improve fuel efficiency exhaust systems
twice a year

Get older, polluting Set strict emission

cars off the road standards

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Fig. 18-26, p. 496
Reducing Indoor Air Pollution Should
Be a Priority

• Greater threat to human health than

outdoor pollution
• What can be done?
– Prevention
– Cleanup

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 Solutions
Indoor Air Pollution
Prevention Reduction and
Dilution
Ban indoor smoking Use adjustable
fresh air vents
Set stricter for work spaces
formaldehyde
emissions Circulate air more
standards for frequently
carpet, furniture,
and building
materials Circulate a
building’s air
Prevent radon through rooftop
infiltration greenhouses

Use less polluting

Use efficient venting
cleaning agents,
systems for wood-
paints, and other
burning stoves
products
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Fig. 18-27, p. 496
We Can Emphasize Pollution Prevention

• How can we avoid producing these

pollutants in the first place?
– Place political and economic pressure on
government officials and companies

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18-17: How Have We Depleted Ozone in
the Stratosphere & What Can We Do?

• Widespread use of certain chemicals has:

– Reduced ozone levels in the stratosphere
– Allowed more harmful ultraviolet radiation to
reach the earth’s surface
• To reverse ozone depletion:
– Stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals
– Adhere to the international treaties that ban
such chemicals

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Our Use of Certain Chemicals Threatens
the Ozone Layer

• Ozone is thinning over Antarctica and the

Arctic
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
– Persistent chemicals that attack ozone in the
stratosphere

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Ozone Degradation

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Fig. 18-30, p. 498
Why Should We Worry About Ozone
Depletion?

• Ozone protects the earth’s surface from

damaging UV radiation
– Human health concerns
– UV radiation affects plankton

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We Can Reverse Stratospheric Ozone
Depletion

• Stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals

immediately
• Agreements with a prevention approach:
– Montreal Protocol
• Cut emissions of CFCs
– Copenhagen Amendment
• Accelerated phase-out

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Big Ideas

• Outdoor air pollution, in the forms of

industrial smog, photochemical smog, and
acid deposition, and indoor air pollution
are serious global problems
• Each year, at least 2.4 million people die
prematurely from the effects of air
pollution; indoor air pollution, primarily in
less-developed countries, causes about
two-thirds of those deaths
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Big Ideas (cont’d.)

• We need to give top priority status to the

prevention of outdoor and indoor air
pollution throughout the world and the
reduction of stratospheric ozone depletion

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Tying it All Together

• Three principles of sustainability

– Rely more on direct and indirect forms of solar
energy than on fossils fuels
– Recycle and reuse much more of what we use
– Use a diverse set of nonpolluting or low-
polluting renewable energy resources

© Cengage Learning 2015