Lect 1

EQUIPMENT FOR DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING
DANIEL N. AIDOO
IAEA 1
COURSE CONTENT
 THE GENERATION OF X-RADIATION AND THE

PART OF THE EQUIPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH IT
 The electrical power supply
 The electrical circuit of an x-ray unit
 X-ray tube filament circuit
 X-ray tube high tension circuit
 X-ray tube and its electrical connection
 Exposure switching and the control of exposure times

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COURSE CONTENT-cont.
 The nature of the x-ray beam

 Safety devices
 X-ray tube rating
 Monitoring of x-ray tube loading
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COURSE CONTENT-cont.
 Auxiliary x-ray equipment for diagnostic imaging

 Radiographic tables / patient support system
 X-ray Cassette / film holder
 Tube support system
 General care of a radiological equipment
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THE GENERATION OF X-RADIATION
 Introduction
 To produce a high quality radiograph for medical
diagnosis;
 It is essential to produce a beam of X-radiation

which can be closely controlled to give exact quality
and quantity of radiation required so that consistent
results are obtained.
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 Requirement
 Electrical power supply
 X-ray equipment
 Basically an x-ray equipment must consist of;
o the source of radiation
o the x-ray tube
o The generator supplying the system with electrical power
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 Requirement-cont.
 Automatic safety devices to ensure
 Operator's safety
 Patient's safety
 Equipment safety
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THE ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY
FOR X-RAY UNIT
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Content
MAINS SUPPLY (ELECTRICAL SUPPLY)
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MAINS ELECTRICAL SUPPLY
 Introduction
 The range of diagnostic imaging equipment available
today is very wide, extending from the simple
portable x-ray unit to highly complex computerized
system.
 Despite this variation in complexity, they all have one

factor in common and that is their demand for
electrical energy to operate.
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 Introduction-cont.
 Without electrical energy in one form or another none
of them can function
 Some low powered x-ray units operate from batteries

and are thus completely independent of the mains
electrical supply.
 Apart from these imaging equipment, all other imaging

systems are dependent on the mains supply.
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 Introduction-cont.
 Therefore it is essential for us to start our
studies by looking at the way in which electricity
is generated at the power station and then
supply to the system.
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 Involves four (4) principal components:

 The generating system
 The transmission system
 Local distribution
 Connection of an x-ray unit
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THE GENERATING SYSTEM
 Power is generated by the Central Electricity

Generating Board in its power station
 In Ghana , VRA generates the power through

hydro turbines at 50Hz and 240V (r.m.s).
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THE GENERATING SYSTEM-cont.
 The main power supply for the x-ray unit is from an

alternating voltage source.
 An alternating voltage is the one whose

magnitude and direction varies with time.
 The max permitted voltage variation is 6% of the

r.m.s.
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THE GENERATING SYSTEM-cont.
 At the power station, electrical energy is generated as

a three-phase supply
 This ensures maximum use of the available energy
 The generation of the electrical energy is based on

the principle of electromagnetic induction (EI).
 An emf is induced into a conductor when there is

relative motion between the conductor and a
magnetic field.
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THE GENERATING SYSTEM-cont
 At the power station, the necessary motive energy source

may be supplied by
 Gravitational energy obtained from water falling from

a height (Hydro-electric power)
 Thermal energy, heat is obtained by burning coal or

oil or from nuclear reaction such as nuclear fission
(NB: the heat is used to convert water into steam)
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 The energy generated by both systems is used to drive a

turbine, which is connected to an electrical generator
 This mechanism produces the necessary motion between

the conductor and the magnetic field.
 The turbine is designed to rotate at 3000 revolution per

minute, hence frequency of 50Hz in this country.
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 It is important to realize that electrical energy is not

created at the power station.
 From the energy conservation principle, energy

can neither be created nor destroyed although it
can be changed from one form to another.
 Such an energy conversion takes place at the power

station.
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 The heat energy released by burning coal or oil is

being used to boil water and produce steam.
 This steam, under a pressure acts on the blades

of the turbine causing it and the rotor to rotate.
 The magnetic field associated with the rotor sweeps

past the stator inducing into them an electromotive
force (e.m.f).
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Alternative voltage generating system
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Alternative voltage generating system
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 The electrical energy may also be produced from the

kinetic energy of water falling from a height
 The principle is called hydro-power energy or

hydroelectricity.
 Hydro means water, and thus, hydro-power energy is

power gotten from water.
 The process start with a Hydroelectric or hydropower

Plant
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 Hydropower / Hydroelectric plant

 Hydropower plants range in size from "micro-
hydros" that power only a few homes to giant
dams that provide electricity for millions of
people.
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 How the Hydropower Works

 Hydropower plants capture the K.E of the falling water.
 A turbine converts the kinetic energy of the falling

water into mechanical energy.
 Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from

the turbine into electrical energy.
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 Part of a Hydroelectric Plant-1

 Most conventional hydroelectric plants include four
major components / parts:
 Dam
• Body of non-flowing water or reservoir of water
• Raises the water level to create falling water.
• Also controls the flow of water.
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DAM
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 Turbine
• The force of falling water pushing against the turbine's
blades causes the turbine to spin.
• The turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water

into mechanical energy.
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 Generator
• Connected to the turbine by shafts and possibly gears
• The generator spins whenever the turbine spins.
• Converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electric
energy.
 Transmission lines.
• Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to homes and
business.
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Hydroelectric plant
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 The water in the dam is allowed to flow through pipes

known as penstock in a vertical plane.
 Each penstock has its own hitch gate at the top to

control water flow for maintenance or during
emergency.
 At the end of the penstock is the scroll case

 Designed to create a consistent pressure of water entering
the turbine from all sides.
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SCROLL CASE
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 Inside the scroll case is a set of veins known as the wicket gate.
 The wicket gates are controlled by a governor system which

closes and opens them in response to the load on the
system.
 A higher load on the system opens the wicket gate
 A lower load gradually shuts the wicket gate.
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WICKET GATE
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 The turbine blades transmits the rotational motion to a

shaft known as the runner which in turn transmits to the
generator.
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 This causes the rotor within the generator to

rotate.
 The magnetic field associated with the rotor

sweeps past the stator inducing into them an
electromotive force (e.m.f).
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summary
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GENERATOR
 Not the same as the domestic generator.

 Though, both work with the same principle, the principle of
electromagnetism.
 The rotational motion in the domestic generator is from the

piston effect (burning fossil fuel i.e. petrol).
 The rotational motion in this plant /generator is from water which

drives the turbine to turn kinetic energy to mechanical energy.
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GENERATOR
 Uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to

turn the mechanical energy developed by the
turbine to a three phase alternating current
(Electrical energy).
 Subsequently gets transmitted and distributed via

transmission and distribution lines respectively.
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GENERATOR-cont.
 Single-phase electrical generator

 Single (one) coil of wire (conductor) rotating in a fixed
magnetic field
 The coil rotate at the frequency of 50Hz in an

anticlockwise direction by a turbine
 The magnetic field is produced by two opposing

magnetic poles.
 Generate one-phase electrical supply
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Voltage induced when coil makes one revolution
in magnetic field
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GENERATOR-cont.
 Three-phase electrical generator

 Used at the power station to generate three-phase
electrical supply.
 Three (3) coils rotate simultaneously in a magnetic field
 Each coil (consisting of two halves) is separated by an

angle of 60 degrees.
 The coils rotate at a frequency of 50Hz.
 The three induced emf are said to be 120 degrees out of

phase
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Three phase generator and output supply
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Three phase generator and output supply
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Hydroelectric plant
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Advantages of 3 phase supply
 It gives more efficient use of the generator.

 It gives more economical use of the conductors.
 It gives smoother supply than that obtained from
single phase sinusoidal output.
 It is the simplest construction of all kinds of

rotating electrical equipment because it has in-
built phase rotation.
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Radiographic advantages of 3 phase x-ray generators
compared to those operating on single phase
 As the kV remains constantly at a high value during the

exposure
 More X-rays are produced for a given mA and kVp.
 Radiographic exposure is achieved within a shortest possible time,
hence reduction in exposure time.
 Improved tube rating

 Produces x-rays of shorter average wavelength than the single
phase unit, even though kVp and mA are the same.
 Less soft radiation is produce, resulting in a reduction in patient

skin dose.
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Quantity of the electrical energy produce
 The amount of electricity a hydropower plant produces

depends on two factors:
 How Far the Water Falls

• The farther the water falls, the more power it has.
• The higher the dam, the farther the water falls and the more
power it has.
Note: that the power of falling water is "directly proportional"

to the distance it falls.
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Quantity of the electrical energy produce
 Amount of Water Falling.

• More water falling through the turbine will produce more
power.
• The amount of water available depends on the amount

of water flowing down the river.
• Bigger rivers have more flowing water and can produce

more energy.
• Power is also "directly proportional" to river flow.
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Distribution of electrical energy
 At the power station separate emf  Diagram

is induce into each coil and that
each emf is 120 degrees out of
phase with respect to its neighbour.
 Each emf is stepped up at the

power station to approximately
400kV by the use of high tension
transformers and transmitted to
consumer through transmission
lines.
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Distribution of electrical energy-cont.
 The conducting cable (transmission lines) is

usually aluminium.
 The high tension supply is stepped down to

lower working voltage by means of a stepped
down transformer before passing to the
Hospitals and hence to the radiological equipment.
 All three phases are used for the x-ray generator.
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Electrical supply to the Hospital.
 The electrical source for the hospital is

connected to the mains supply
 The hospital engineer determines which parts

of the hospital will be supplied with a 240V and
which with be supplied with 415V or all the
three phase.
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Electrical supply to the Hospital-cont.
 At the hospital, the supply is distributed to

each department which has it's own
distribution board
 Power is drawn from the distribution board for

the lightening circuit, the outlet
socket ,some permanent connection for
equipment such as fixed x-ray unit etc.
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Electrical supply to the Hospital-cont.
 In the X-ray department, 240V may be used

for lighting, densitometer etc and low
powered x-ray equipment such as dental
or mobile units.
 415V may be used for 2-phase units

 All the three phase for high-powered X-ray
generators.
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Cable resistance. (QA)
 Prior to installing new X-ray equipment, it is important to

ensure that the supply cable resistance does not exceed
the maximum value quoted by the manufactures.
 If the resistance cable is exceeded, voltage drops along

the cables which result in unacceptable reduction in
voltage to the equipment when an exposure is made.
 X-ray equipment are designed to operate with a specified

cable resistance
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Mains switch
 Provides means of switching  Diagram
the current ‘on’ and ‘off’ by

making or breaking each of the
electrical conductor .
 The equipment is completely

isolated from the mains supply
when the switch is ‘off’.
 The switch gear is contained

within an earthed metal box.
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Mains switch-cont.
 The box has a hinged front  Attached to the bar are

or door which can only be two ‘’U’’ shaped
opened when the switch is pieces of copper
in the off position.  They are three if the
 The switch bar is attached to supply is to a three
an insulated handle. phase x-ray unit.
 This bar rotates when the 

handled is move up to the
‘on’ position or down to the
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‘off’ position.
Mains switch-cont.
 These ‘u’ shape  NB: If possible, all electrical

pieces off copper supplies to the equipment
‘make’ or ‘break’ the in an X-ray room,
circuit according to  Example : supple to the
their position. motor for tilting the table,
 The box also contained supple to the television as
a number of fuses well as the electrical supply
which is determined by to the x-ray unit itself
the number of live should pass through one
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conductor mains switch
Electrical Fuse
 Diagram
 Is the weakest part of an electrical
circuit
 It protects the components part of

an electrical circuit from damage
due to overload.
 Electrical components are

designed to carry a particular
current or withstand a
particular voltage
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Electrical Fuse-cont.
 Each electrical  If the current flowing

component is rated in through the component
terms of maximum exceeds its rated value,
current it can safely carry the component will
and the maximum voltage probably suffer damage
it can withstand. and may even destroyed.
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Electrical Fuse-cont.
 The fuse melt, protecting

 Fuse wire is also rated
the vital components of
in terms of the the circuit
maximum current it can
carry before it melts.
 Typical example is when

current flowing through X-
ray circuit rises.
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Difficulties involved in re-placing electrical fuse
 Panels need to be removed from the circuit to gain

access to the fuse holder
 Availability of correct gauge of fuse wire

 If a spare fuse is replaced with the equipment ready
for immediate operation, there is an inevitable
delay before the x-ray unit is once more ready for
use. This can cause much frustration particularly if
the unit is being used in the operating theatre.
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Circuit Breaker
 To overcome the difficulties in replacing electrical

fuse, most manufacturers use a circuit breaker
rather than a fuse to protect the circuit components.
 The circuit breaker ensures that, the current

through the circuit does not rise above the
recommended value.
 The circuit breaker can be reset immediately by

pressing a small button.
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Types of Circuit Breaker
 Basically, two (2) types
 Thermal circuit breaker
 Usually represented by a small button of red colour
 Its operation relies on the effect of heat on the bimetal strip
 The bimetal strip is usually in series connection with the circuit
 The temperature of the strip is governed by the current flowing
through it.
 At a predetermined critical temperature, the bimetal strip is bent to

an extent that it releases a mechanism which opens the circuit.
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Thermal Circuit Breaker
 Advantages over fuse

 Can be reset easily as fuse takes a longer time
to be reset
 Disadvantages over fuse

 Slower in action than a fuse as it takes longer
for the metal strip to be bent.
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 Electromagnetic Circuit
Breaker.
 Introduction  photograph
 Involves movement of a
switch handle
 The device relies upon the

magnetic effect of a current
carrying conductor for its
operations
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Operation of the Electromagnetic Circuit Breaker
 This protect the

 If the current flowing through a thick
components of the
wire, in series connection with the circuit circuit
rises to an excessive value.
 Diagram
 The magnetic effect associated with the
current causes a moveable metal core
to be drawn into the coil of wire
 The metal then strikes a bar, which

operates a trip mechanism.
 This causes the circuit to be opened,

thereby stopping the flow of current in
the circuit.
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Operation of the Electromagnetic Circuit Breaker
 NB: For a transient rise in current  This type of circuit

 The movement of the metal core into breaker is made
the coil of wire may be impeded by functional again by
the pressure of the oil in the pressing button
dashpot.  This resets the trip
 This prevent the current from being mechanism.
switch off in the circuit
 In this case, only a sustained rise in

current can cause the trip mechanism
to be operated and open the circuit for
current to be switched off in the circuit
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Operation of the Circuit breaker and ‘on’ and ‘off’
switches in the X-ray Circuit
 X-ray unit ‘on’ and ‘off’ switches and circuit breaker switch
connected in circuit.
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switches in the X-ray Circuit-cont.
 Pressing the ‘on’ switch  Excessive current through the

completes the circuit N-S1-’on’ coil of the circuit breaker (forms
switch-trip switch-L1. an integral part of the primary
 This allows the flow of current circuit), causes a movable core
through the coil, S1 causing to be drawn into the coil of wire
closure of C1 , C2 and C3.  Movement of the core operates
 This allows the primary circuit to the strip switch, which opens the
be completed and current then circuit N-S1-C1-trip switch-L1
flow through it to the  This stops the flow of current
autotransformer. through the coil, S1.
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switches in the X-ray Circuit-cont.
 Switches C1, C2, and C3 are NB: Circuit N-S1-C1-L1 may also be
then opened and terminate the opened by pressing the ‘off switch.
flow of current through the This interrupt the flow of current
primary circuit through the coil S1.
This causes switches C1, C2 and

C3 to be opened, terminating current
flow through the primary circuit
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Electrical supply
 Factors to be considered when arranging electrical

power supply for an x-ray unit;
 The voltage of the mains supply: the voltage must satisfy
the manufacturer's supply requirement for the unit.
 The resistance of the cables.

 The cable must have the specific current carrying
capacity. This is normally stated in terms of fuse rating
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Thank you
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EQUIPMENT FOR DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING

 THE GENERATION OF X-RADIATION AND THE

 The electrical power supply

 The electrical circuit of an x-ray unit

 X-ray tube filament circuit

 X-ray tube high tension circuit

 X-ray tube and its electrical connection

 Exposure switching and the control of exposure times

 The nature of the x-ray beam

 Auxiliary x-ray equipment for diagnostic imaging

 X-ray Cassette / film holder

 Tube support system

 General care of a radiological equipment

 It is essential to produce a beam of X-radiation

MAINS SUPPLY (ELECTRICAL SUPPLY)

 Despite this variation in complexity, they all have one

 Some low powered x-ray units operate from batteries

 Apart from these imaging equipment, all other imaging

 Involves four (4) principal components:

 The transmission system

 Connection of an x-ray unit

 Power is generated by the Central Electricity

 In Ghana , VRA generates the power through

 The main power supply for the x-ray unit is from an

 An alternating voltage is the one whose

 The max permitted voltage variation is 6% of the

 At the power station, electrical energy is generated as

 This ensures maximum use of the available energy

 The generation of the electrical energy is based on

 An emf is induced into a conductor when there is

 At the power station, the necessary motive energy source

 Gravitational energy obtained from water falling from

 Thermal energy, heat is obtained by burning coal or

(NB: the heat is used to convert water into steam)

 The energy generated by both systems is used to drive a

 This mechanism produces the necessary motion between

 The turbine is designed to rotate at 3000 revolution per

 It is important to realize that electrical energy is not

 From the energy conservation principle, energy

 Such an energy conversion takes place at the power

 The heat energy released by burning coal or oil is

 This steam, under a pressure acts on the blades

 The magnetic field associated with the rotor sweeps

 The electrical energy may also be produced from the

 The principle is called hydro-power energy or

 Hydro means water, and thus, hydro-power energy is

 The process start with a Hydroelectric or hydropower

 Hydropower / Hydroelectric plant

 How the Hydropower Works

 A turbine converts the kinetic energy of the falling

 Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from

 Part of a Hydroelectric Plant-1

 Part of a Hydroelectric Plant-2

• The turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water

 Part of a Hydroelectric Plant-3

 The water in the dam is allowed to flow through pipes

 Each penstock has its own hitch gate at the top to

 At the end of the penstock is the scroll case

 The wicket gates are controlled by a governor system which

 A higher load on the system opens the wicket gate

 A lower load gradually shuts the wicket gate.

 The turbine blades transmits the rotational motion to a

 This causes the rotor within the generator to