Topic. Electrical Power system.

The basic electrical power system contains three separate parts.

1. Generation
2. Transmission
3. Distribution
1. Electricity Generation system

Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from primary energy
sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower, biomass, nuclear, etc.

Generation of electricity is carried out in power stations or in power plants. The production
of electricity results from the transformation of the different types of energy sources. This
is achieved by electromechanical generators, driven primarily by heat engines fueled by
combustion. They can also be driven by other means such as the kinetic energy from a
flowing river or wind.

Fuel generates energy:

Electric-power generation starts with a source of fuel that can be harnessed to create
energy. There are three major sources of fuel types

• Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas),

• Nuclear energy
• renewable energy sources (such as solar power, wind power, falling water for hydro
generation}
Methods of generation
Several fundamental methods exist to convert other form of energy into electrical energy.
Here are some of them.

1 electrochemistry
2. Photovoltaic effects
3. Induction generators

4. electrochemistry.
As in a battery, electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into
electricity.
there are two types of cells,
5. Primary cell- Primary cells act as power sources directly
6. Secondary cell-secondary cells (i.e. rechargeable batteries) are used for storage systems
rather than primary generation systems.

2. Photovoltaic Effect
As in solar cells, photovoltaic effect is the transformation of light into electrical energy.
3. Induction Generators
Electric generators transform mechanical energy (i.e. kinetic energy) into electricity. This
is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be
seen experimentally by rotating a magnet within closed loops of conducting material (e.g.
copper wire). Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic
induction, in which mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate.

Some prime movers such as an engine or turbines in general drive a rotating magnetic
field past stationary coils of wire thereby converting mechanical energy to electricity.
Commercial electric power generated on Earth is with turbines, driven by water, steam,
wind or by burning of gas. By electromagnetic induction the turbine drives a generator,
consequently transforming its mechanical energy into electrical energy. There are many
different methods of developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind
and tidal power. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines.
Electromagnetic induction.

Introduction.
Electricity and magnetism were considered separate and unrelated phenomena for a long
time. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, experiments on electric current by
Oersted, Ampere and a few others established the fact that electricity and magnetism are
inter-related. They found that moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example,
an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity his naturally raises
the questions like: Is the converse effect possible? Can moving magnets produce electric
currents?
The answer is yes

The experiments of Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in USA, conducted around
1830, demonstrated conclusively that electric currents were induced in closed coils when
subjected to changing magnetic fields.

he phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying magnetic fields is

appropriately called electromagnetic induction.
Experiment 1. observations.

1. When the magnet is move towards the coil

the galvanometer deflects to the left or
right depending on south/ north magnetic
pole respectively is moving to the coil.
Current flows in either direction
respectively.
2. When the magnet is held steady, the
galvanometer remains at zero. No current
flows.
3. The deflection lasts as long as the bar
magnet is in motion.

4. Further, the deflection (and hence current)

is found to be larger when the magnet is
pushed towards or pulled away from the
coil faster.
5. If the magnet is held steady and the coil is
move to and from it. The same effects is
observed.
From the experiment it is observe that
the relative motion between the
magnet and the coil that is responsible
for generation (induction) of electric
current in the coil.
Experiment 2. observation.

the bar magnet is replaced by a second coil

C2 connected to a battery. The steady current in the
coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field.

As coil C2 is moved towards the coil C1, the

galvanometer shows a deflection. This indicates that
electric current is induced in coil C1. When C2 is
moved away, the galvanometer shows a
deflection again, but this time in the opposite
direction. The deflection lasts as long as coil C2 is in
motion.

When the coilC2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the

same effects are observed.

Again, it is the relative motion

between the coils that induces
the electric current.
Experiment 3. observation.

figure 6.3 shows two coils C1 and C2 held

stationary. Coil C1 is connected to
galvanometer G while the second coil C2 is
connected to a battery through a tapping key
K.

It is observed that the galvanometer shows a

momentary deflection when the tapping key K
is pressed. The pointer in the galvanometer
returns to zero immediately. If the key is held
pressed continuously, there is no
deflection in the galvanometer. When the key
is released, a momentary deflection is
observed again, but in the opposite direction.
It is also observed that the deflection increases
dramatically when an iron rod is inserted
into the coils along their axis.
MAGNETIC FLUX
Before we define the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. We must first define
what magnetic flux is.

Its is simply the amount or density of magnetic field line passing through a given cross
sectional area in time.

Where
B= magnetic field line density
A= cross sectional area
= magnetic flux
Faraday’s Law of Induction

Faraday’s experiments showed that the emf induced by a change in magnetic flux depends on
only a few factors.
• First, emf is directly proportional to the change in flux .
• Second, emf is greatest when the change in time is smallest—that is, emf is inversely
proportional to change in time.
• Finally, if a coil has N turns, an emf will be produced that is N times greater than for a single
coil,
so that emf is directly proportional to N .

The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through the circuit. The equation for the emf induced by a change in magnetic flux is

The units for emf are volts, as is usual

The minus sign in Faraday’s law of induction is very important. The minus means that the emf
creates a current I and magnetic field B that oppose the change in flux —this is known as
Lenz’s law
Example 1.
A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5 Ω is placed vertically in the east-west plane. A
uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north-east direction. The
magnetic field is decreased to zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate. Determine the magnitudes of
induced emf and current during this time-interval.

The angle θ made by the area vector of the coil with the magnetic field is 45°. the initial
magnetic flux is Φ = BA cos θ
Example 2
A circular coil of radius 10 cm, 500 turns and resistance 2 Ω is placed with its plane
perpendicular to the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. It is rotated about its
vertical diameter through 180°in 0.25 s. Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and current
induced in the coil. Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at the place is 3.0 × 10–5
T.
Working Principle of a Generator
The generator does not really create the electricity, instead it is important to understand
that the generator uses mechanical energy being supplied to it, that forces the movement
of electric charges present in the wires through an external electric circuit in a magnetic
field. Generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction .
Example.
Calculating the Emf Induced in a Generator Coil The generator coil shown below rotated through
one-fourth of a revolution (from to ) in 15.0 ms. The 200-turn circular coil has a 5.00 cm radius
and is in a uniform 1.25 T magnetic field. What is the average emf induced?

Solution
We use Faraday’s law of induction to find the average emf induced over a time
TOPIC 3: ELECTRICITY GENERATING STRUCTURES

Electricity generating structures (often termed power plants for large scale production of
electrical energy) are the chief contributors to all the power generated in the world.

Electricity Generating Structures

Electricity generating structures are industrial facilities designed to capture energy from a
primary energy source and convert it into electricity. They are often referred to as power
plants or stations.

these structures can be divided into four common power plants:

I. Thermal Power Plants
II. II. Hydroelectric Power Plants
III. III. Solar Power Plants
IV. IV. Wind Power Plants

At large power plants, the electricity is generated most often by electromechanical

generators, primarily driven by rotating a turbine from a fluid source such as water, gas,
wind or steam.
Common Components found in Electricity Generating Structures

1.Turbines
There are different categories of classifying turbines such as their methods of
construction, working pressure, size, function, and other factors. However so,
considering the transfer and exchange of energy from the fluid onto the blades
whether water, gas, wind or steam, there are two basic categories of turbines;

1. Impulse Turbines
the turbine wheel is driven by the kinetic energy of the fluid that strikes the
turbine blades through the nozzle or otherwise, the turbine is known as an
impulse turbine. In these types of turbines, a set of rotating machinery operates
at atmospheric pressure and are usually suitable for high head and low flow
rates.

The three impulse turbines are

1. Pelton
2. Turgo
3. Cross-flow turbines
II. Reaction Turbines
If the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of water which are due to the pressure and
velocity that cause the turbine blades to rotate, the turbine is classified as a reaction turbine. In
these types of turbines, the entire turbine is immersed in water where changes in the water
pressure with the kinetic energy of the water cause power exchange. Applications of reaction
turbines are usually at lower heads and higher flow rates than impulse turbines.

Reaction turbines are very diverse. This includes

1. Francis,
2. Kaplan,
3. Axial flow turbines
There varying energy sources, there are also different types of electricity generating
structures however in this section, we will be focusing on two types of power plants:
1. Thermal power plants specifically Fossil Fuel
2. and the Hydroelectric Power Plants

Thermal Power Plants: Fossil Fuel Power Plants

Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of organisms which have been buried within the
Earth’s crust for an extensive period under immense heat and pressure. They are all usually
found in large deposits.

The three main fossil fuels mentioned previously clearly identify the three main types of fossil
fuel power plants which include;
3. Coal Fired Power Plants
4. Diesel Fired Power plants
5. Natural Gas Fired Power plants

These power plants have different working components but ultimately all share the same
principle of thermal energy transfer into mechanical energy. Coal fired Power plants will be
explained.
Coal Fired Power Plants
Coal is the solid form of fossil fuel. There are various designs and configurations for a
conventional coal fired power plant, but all have similar processes.

Coal is firstly processed and burnt to produce steam. This steam is channeled to expand
as it rotates a turbine generator to produce electricity. The electricity generated is then
fed into an electrical transmission and distribution system. The exhausted steam then
enters a cooling system that condenses the steam back into water, thus repeating the
cycle.

The exiting gas (usually termed flue gas) from combusting coal is vented out through a
smokestack where the air pollutants are filtered before it is released.

From the various designs, the most common is a pulverized-coal (PC) unit. Figure below displays
a basic schematic diagram to illustrate this power plant setup;
Main Components of a Coal Fired Power Plants

I. Coal and Ash Unit

This unit is responsible for receiving, processing and combusting coal. It is also
responsible for ash removal after combustion which is necessary for proper burning of
coal. It contains the following components

• Coal Pulverizer
The coal supply is first introduced into a pulverizer that crushes the coal into smaller and
finer particles. This is to increase its surface exposure, thus maximizing heat generated

• Coal Burner
The coal is fed into a burner for combustion. The burner is within the furnace unit known
as the boiler. The burner controls the ignition mixture of coal and pre-heated air for
effective combustion.
II. Steam and Electricity Generation Unit
the steam generation unit is responsible for the production of steam from heating
water. It consists of a boiler and heat transfer equipment that produce steam and other
auxiliary equipment that utilize the flue gases. It contains the following components;

• Steam Boiler
The boiler facilitates the transfer of heat from combustion which converts the water
into steam at high temperature and pressure. Within the boiler, the steam and water
make their journey through the following;

i. Super Heater –
The steam generated from the boiler is wet and is therefore passed through a super heater
where it is dried and superheated

ii. Reheater –
In large power plants, a reheater is used where several turbines often referred to as multi-
stage turbines are used. The reheater is basically a superheater that reheats some of the
exhausted steam which were diverted when travelling to the condenser to be converted back
into water.
iii. Economizer –
Before the water is fed into the boiler to be converted into
steam, a heat exchanger deriving heat from the flue gases is used to increase
the feed water temperature so that it is easier for phase conversion. This device
is known as an economizer

iv. Air Pre-heater –

The air pre-heater essentially extracts heat from the flue
gases to increase the temperature of air that is drawn in from the atmosphere
by a forced draft fan before being supplied to the boiler furnace.
• Steam Turbine
From the super heater, the superheated steam is fed to a steam turbine through
the main valve. As the steam passes over the blades, thermal energy is transferred
and converted into mechanical energy. The exhausted steam after transfer is then
sent to be condensed by a condenser by means of cold-water circulation within a
cooling unit.

• Alternator
The steam turbine is coupled to either a generator or an alternator where it
converts mechanical energy of rotation into electrical energy. Typically, both work
on the same principle however alternators are more efficient mainly in generating
a higher electrical output. From the alternator the electricity induced is passed onto
a transformer which is increases the voltage. This voltage is then transmitted
through power lines to a grid station for distribution to the city.

• III. Cooling Unit

The cooling unit is responsible for supplying and/or recycling water for steam
generation. It contains the following components;
• Condenser
The condenser, as its name suggests, condenses the exhausted steam from the
turbine back into water or condensates below atmospheric pressure.

• Cooling Tower
Hot water coming out from the condenser is discharged at a suitable location near
a large body of water usually a river or lake.

IV. Pollution Control Unit

This unit is responsible for the control of pollutants in compliance with pollution control
regulations. These pollutants are obtained from gas emissions and residual ash from
combusting coal. The principal emissions include:

• Sulfur dioxide (SO2),

• Nitrogen oxides (NOx),
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Mercury and other heavy metals
• Fly ash and bottom ash
The pollution control unit contains the following components;

• Selective Catalytic Reduction

The Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is an integrated system that functions to
remove NOx from the flue gases thereby releasing harmless by-products.

• Particulate Collector
The particulate collector is generally referring to the pollution control device that
contains fabric filters to remove the micrometer to sub-micrometer particles and an
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) that eliminates the dust and smoke that
accompanies the flue gases.

• Scrubber
The sulfur emissions in the flue gases are reduced from coal combustion before
reaching the atmosphere most often by use of pollution control towers, referred to
as a scrubber.
• Smoke-Stack

After pollutants are reduced from the coal-combustion process, the remaining and
less harmful flue gases exit to the atmosphere through chimney referred to as a
smokestack.