OPP Latest Edit

OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT
Commercial Air Transport

Operation
1
COURSE OBJECTIVE
• At the end of the course trainees will be able

to:
– Describe procedures of International commercial
and General Aviation operations
– Define and describe the different aerodrome
operating minima
– Determine different requirements of operating
international general aviation
2
Definition of Term
Air operator certificate (AOC). A certificate authorizing an

operator to carry out specified commercial air transport
operations.
Take-off alternate. An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft

can land should this become necessary shortly after take-off and
it is not possible to use the aerodrome of departure.
3
Definition of Terms…cont’d
En-route alternate. An aerodrome at which an aircraft would be
able to land after experiencing an abnormal or emergency
condition while en-route.
Destination alternate. An alternate aerodrome to which an aircraft

may proceed should it become either impossible or inadvisable to
land at the aerodrome of intended landing.
ETOPS en-route alternate. A suitable and appropriate alternate

aerodrome at which an aeroplane would be able to land after
experiencing an engine shutdown or other abnormal or emergency
condition while en route in an ETOPS operation.
.
4
Flight duty period. The total time from the moment a flight
crew member commences duty, immediately subsequent to
a rest period and prior to making a flight or a series of
flights, to the moment the flight crew member is relieved of
all duties having completed such flight or series of flights.
5
Flight time — aeroplanes. The total time from the moment

an aeroplane first moves for the purpose of taking off until
the moment it finally comes to rest at the end of the flight.
Note.— Flight time as here defined is synonymous with the term “block to block” time or
“chock to chock” time in general usage which is measured from the time an aeroplane
first moves for the purpose of taking off until it finally stops at the end of the flight.
Rest period. Any period of time on the ground during

which a flight crew member is relieved of all duties by the
operator
6
Applicability
 Generally , the ICAO Annex 6 part one is only applicable to

commercial flight operations.
 The aeroplane operator must apply to the authority for

approval in order to conduct international commercial air
transport operation.
7
General
Compliance with laws, regulations and

procedures
• All employees abroad
Shall know and comply with the laws of the
state in which operations are conducted.
• The pilot-in-command shall
– comply with the relevant laws, regulations
and procedures of the States in which the
aeroplane is operated.
8
General…cont’d
 Operators shall ensure that pilots-in-command have
available on board the aeroplane all the essential information
concerning the search and rescue services in the area over
which the aeroplane will be flown.
 Operational responsibility lies with the operator, or a

specially designated representative.
9
General…cont’d
 As a rule, this responsibility is delegated to the pilot in-

command(PIC).
 The responsibility of certain parts may also be delegated

to the “Flight operations officer” and “Flight Dispatcher”
(Delegation includes pre-flight procedure and the
briefing of pilots.)
10
Accident prevention and flight safety
programme
 In order to prevent accidents from occurring, ICAO

Annex 6 specify broad and binding requirements for the
implementation of a ”Flight Safety Management
programme”.
 SMS must be implemented in the member state and that a

level of safety acceptable to the state is required.
An operator shall establish and maintain an accident

prevention and flight safety programme.
11
Flight Safety Documents System
 It is no more than collection of interrelated/referenced
documentation
 The minimum requirement includes the presence and

availability of the operation Manuals and maintenance
manual.
 All documents and manuals have the same structure and

consistent in order to reduce the human factor as much as
possible as well as to increase safety.
12
Maintenance release
 One of the key areas in terms of safety is aircraft
maintenance.
 Annex 6 provides clear guidelines for release of aircraft

after maintenance.
 A maintenance release shall be completed and signed to

certify that the maintenance work performed has been
completed satisfactorily and in accordance with approved
data and the procedures described in the maintenance
organization’s procedures manual.
13
Maintenance release Cont’d
A maintenance release shall contain a certification including:
a) Basic details of the maintenance carried out including

detailed reference of the approved data used;
b) Date on which maintenance was completed;
c) When applicable, the identity of the approved

maintenance
organization; and
d) The identity of the person or persons signing the release.

(Master-check in car workshop) 14
Prescribed aircraft lights/cont’d
For air craft flying in the air ,navigation lights must posses
the following:-
 Red light
-Left wing tip.
-Emit lights upwards and down wards.
-Longitudinal axis must be 110º.
 Green light
-Right wing tip.
15
Prescribed aircraft lights/cont’d
 A white light
-At the rear of the aircraft.

(700 to the left and 700 to right).
16
Aircraft lights/cont’d
17
Operational requirements
Applicability-
An operator shall ensure that a flight will not be commenced

unless it has been ascertained by every reasonable means ;
-The ground and/or water facilities available and

directly required on such flight, for the safe operation of the
aeroplane and ;
-The protection of the passengers, are adequate for the type of

operation under which the flight is to be conducted and are
adequately operated for this purpose.
18
Operational requirements
General
 An operator shall ensure that any inadequacy of facilities
observed in the course of operations is reported to the
authority responsible for them, without undue delay.
 Subject to their published conditions of use, aerodromes

and their facilities shall be kept continuously available for
flight operations during their published hours of
operations, irrespective of weather conditions.
19
Language for communication
 The language used is just as important as the documentation,
permits and Approvals and general applicability.
 The operator must ensure that all crew members can

communicate in a common language at all times.
 Generally the English language.
 Operating manuals must be in English.
 The only way to ensure safety-Language

20
Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)
• Established for a particular aircraft type by a/c designer
• Approved by the State of Design
• Contains items which are permitted to be unserviceable at

the commencement of flight, and
• Associated operating conditions, limitations and procedures
21
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST (MEL)
• Prepared by the operator
• In conformity with MMEL or
• more restrictive than the MMEL
22
CONFIGURATION DEVIATION LIST
(CDL)
 Established by the type designer
 Approved by the state of design
 Identifies any external parts which may be

missing at the commencement of the flight
 The associated operating limitations
23
Management system on Quality
Programs
 Operator must establish a ” quality system”
 Designate a quality manager to monitor compliance with a

quality so as to ensure Safe operational practice.
 The quality assurance programme and the appropriate

personnel must be approved by the authority.
24
Accident prevention and flight safety
The quality programme must include a programme for accident
prevention and flight safety.
The objective of the programme is :
 To promote risk-awareness among all employees.
 Reporting systems and analysis of incidents , faults.
 To produce a flight data analysis for aircraft with an MTOM

more than 27000kg. 25
Accident prevention/cont’d
 The system for reporting and analysis of incidents focus on the

facts and not on who is at fault.
 The system must also be capable of recording messages

anonymously.
26
Additional crew members
 Apart from the classic crew members such as;
 Cockpit crew and
 Cabin crew
 Additional crew members-Exercise their duties in the

passengers compartment (passenger cabin).
-Who “ shuttles” from one location to other location to carryout

their tasks.
-They must not mistaken for flight attendants by passengers.
-The aim is to ensure safety and security.

27
Ditching
 Ditching is forced landing of aircraft on water.
 Operation over water of an aircraft with a seating capacity

more than 30 is Only permitted if the aircraft’s distance
from land meets certain requirements.
 To ensure that the aeroplane can reach a safe landing

location on land .
 The precise regulations are either the distance that the

aircraft travels in 120minutes At cruising speed or 400nm.
28
Carriage of persons
 An operator must take all necessary measures to ensure that

no person is in any part of an aeroplane that is not designed
for accommodation of persons.
29
Responsibility of crew members
 The responsibility of each crew member are regulated

by OPS 1.
 In principle each individual crew members is responsible for

the proper performance Of his/her duties with regard to the
safety of aircraft and passengers , as specified in the operations
manual.
30
Responsibility and authority of the
commander
 Most responsibility lie with the commander/Captain.
 Safety of all crew members , passengers and cargo.
 operation and safety of aeroplane from ready to taxi to

engine shutdown.
 Denial of persons and/or pieces of freight which might

endanger the safety of the flight.
31
Responsibility/cont’d
 Information of the passengers about safety and emergency
equipment and location of emergency exits.
 Compliance with all operational procedures in accordance

with the operations manual.
 Inhibition of crew activities in any phase of the flight

(Cabin crew please take your seat)
 Ensure flight data recorder is not disabled , switched off or

erased.
32
Responsibility/cont’d
 Decision about operation with limited equipment.(MEL).
 Diversion from procedures in emergencies.
 PIC must ensure that the pre-flight checks have been carried
out.( He may delegate F/O)
33
Admission to the flight deck
 Admission to the flight deck is generally highly restricted.
 In principle , Operator must ensure that only assigned crew

members are admitted to the flight deck. However , there are
some exceptions.
 Service personnel , inspectors , persons assigned access and
who therefore require admission .
 Although the operations manual must be approved by the

authority , the operator is granted some degree of freedom.
 Example-Airline employee travels along on the jump seat in

34
the cockpit.(Final decision-PIC)
Admission/cont’d
Operator must take precautions to prevent;
- Stowaways
- Hidden cargo on board aeroplane.
- Example-It is not permitted to convey the luggage

Of passenger who is not on board the aeroplane
(even if the passenger has checked in).
35
Portable electronics devices
 In order to ensure the highest level of safety, an operator must

take various measure to ensure safety.
Which includes;-
Prohibited use of portable electronic devices that can adversely

affect the performance of the aeroplane’s system and
equipment.
36
Portable/cont’d
 Operator must ensure that the use of such devices is

prohibited.
 Some airlines , Emirates, now allow the use of mobile phone

while at cruise altitude.
37
Drunk and intoxicated persons
 Operator must ensure that no person enters or is in an

aeroplane when ;
under the influence of alcohol or drugs
to extent that the safety of the aeroplane or its occupants is

likely to be endangered.
38
Safety threats
The operator must ensure that no person;
 recklessly or negligently act or
 omits to act
that endangers an aeroplane or any person therein .
39
Documents to be carried
Operator must ensure that the whole spectrum of documents

or copies of these documents are carried on board.
 Certificate of registration
 Certificate of air worthiness
 Noise abatement certificate
 Air Operator certificate
 Radio licenses
 Third party liability insurance certificate
 Valid flight crew license and appropriate rating.
40
Manuals to be carried
 The operator must ensure that parts of the operation manual

that are relevant for the flight are carried on each flight and that
they are readily available.
Example- It would not be ideal to store at rear of the aeroplane

if the cockpit personnel needs them for reference.
41
Additional information to be carried
In addition to the flight manuals, other information and

forms also need to be carried on each flight.
 Details of the filed ATS FPL.
 The aeroplane’s technical log;
 Current NOTAM/AIS briefing documentation;
 Appropriate meteorological information; 42

Additional information/cont’d
 Mass and balance documentation;

 Notification of special pax/cargo;
 Current maps and charts;
 Any other doc. Required by the state like pax/cargo
manifest;
 Different forms.
43
Information retained on the ground
 Copies of the operational FPL;
 Copies of the aeroplane’s technical log.
 NOTAM
 Mass and balance
 Special loads notifications
 The operator must ensure that all documentation is

appropriately archived on the ground. 44
Inspections
 The authority may, at any time , request an inspection of the

documentation to be Carried and also conduct inspections
on board of the aeroplane.
 The operator must ensure that the authority is granted

appropriate access.
 However, the PIC has the option to refuse this for reasons of
safety.
45
Production of documentation and
records
 The authority may , at any time , request access to any
documents and records that are related to flight operation and
technical maintenance.
 The production of this information ,both on the ground and

on board, must be provided by PIC within reasonable time.
46
Storage of records and documents
 All flight –related documentation must be preserved at all times.
 The recording of the flight data recorder must also be retained

or preserved at all times.
 The operator of an aeroplane on which a flight recorder

is carried must submit such documents with in reasonable time
after being requested by the authority.
47
Leased aircraft
Dry lease-
When the aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessee.
The operator leasing the airplane(lessee) therefore provides

its own Crew for the operation of the aeroplane.
48
Leased aircraft…cont’d
Wet lease
In the case of wet lease, the lessor also provides the

crew for the operation of the aeroplane.
The lessee remains responsible as operator of the

aeroplane.
49
50
Air Operator's Certificate
 An Air Operator's Certificate must be approved by a
national aviation authority before the operator can use
an aeroplane for commercial flight operations.
 This approval is called an "Air Operator's Certificate"

(AOC).
 Which contain a list of the activities for which approval

has been granted (passenger transport, aerial survey
etc..).
 The operator must satisfy the authority that its

organization and management are suitable and properly
matched 51
Air Operator's Certificate…cont’d
The air operator certificate
 An operator shall not engage in commercial air transport

operations unless in possession of a valid air operator certificate
or equivalent document issued by the State of the operator.
 The air operator certificate or equivalent document shall
authorize the operator to conduct commercial air transport
operations in accordance with such conditions and limitations
as may be specified .
 The State of the Operator shall establish a system for both the
certification and the continued surveillance of the operator to
ensure that the required standards of operations established in
the applicable documents are maintained.
52
Content and requirements of AOC.
In principle, the AOC certificate is divided into different

sections.
The first section contains general information

a) operator’s identification (name, location);
b) date of issue and period of validity;
53
Content and requirements of AOC.
Second section contains;

c) description of the types of operations authorized;
d) the type(s) of aircraft authorized for use; and
e) authorized areas of operation or routes.
Third section contains;

f) Special limitations and special authorizations
/approvals
E.g. Special requirements for relating to CATII/III, MNPS,
ETOPS,RNAV,RVSM and transportation of dangerous goods.
54
Operational Procedures except long-
range flight preparation
55
Definition of terms used
Adequate aerodrome
An aerodrome where the applicable requirements for the
aerodrome and runway are met for the particular aeroplane
being operated.
These requirements include

 availability/opening times within the required period
of operation,
 runway characteristics (length, etc..) and
 available services (ATC, ATS, lighting, CAT II/III,
etc..) in terms of the areas of operation and
associated performance requirements. 56
En-route Alternate (ERA)
During pre-flight planning, account must be taken of
aerodromes that may be used as alternate aerodromes, for
example, in case of an emergency.
This must be a suitable aerodrome. The term used to denote

such an aerodrome is “en-route Alternate" (ERA).
3% ERA
one that is selected in order to reduce contingency fuel

to 3%.
57
Isolated aerodromes
 An aerodrome is considered as isolated, if the fuel required
to reach the nearest suitable alternate aerodrome exceeds
certain levels.
 For aeroplanes with reciprocating engines, this is 45

minutes plus 15% of the scheduled flight time to cruising
altitude or two hours, whichever is the lesser.
 For aeroplanes with turbine engines, this is two hours at

cruising altitude. This includes the final reserve.
58
ETOPS
 ETOPS (extended twin operations) is defined as the use of

twin-engine aeroplanes (e.g. Boeing 737) for longdistance
flight operations
 In order to perform these operations, the appropriate

permits and certifications are required.
59
Operator’s responsibilities regarding
operations manual
In order to enable employees to familiarize themselves with
the operational procedures of aerodromes ,
the operator issues a manual to its employees.
(the “operations manual”)
60
Operators responsibilities regarding
competence of operations personnel
 These employees , particularly employees of ground and

flight operations , must be properly trained.
 The operations manual forms an integral part of this

training.
 In addition , the operator must ensure that the

employees have demonstrated their competence and
ability and they are aware of their responsibilities.
 This can be done, for example, by ensuring regular tests,

61
exams and aptitude tests.
establishment of procedures
 An aircraft operator/owner must also provide a precise
description of the operational procedures.
 Procedure and instructions for each aircraft must be
established that contain the tasks and responsibilities of
the ground and flight personnel for each type of ground
and /or Flight operation.
 To ensure that these procedures comply with the
operations manual and to increase safety ,the operator
must also establish checks/checklists.
 Checklist must cover all phase of operation (normal ,
abnormal and emergency)
62
use of air traffic services
 Since air traffic control services contribute to safe flight
operations , the operator must ensure;
 (through appropriate procedures and checklists)
 that air traffic services are used for all flights(whenever

available).
63
authorization of aerodromes/ heliports by
operators
In addition to applicable procedures, the operator must
also ensure ;
 that only those aerodromes are selected and used that
are deemed suitable for the aeroplane type and the
planned flight operation.
Aerodromes are only considered as being suitable or

adequate when ;
 certain facilities and provisions are in place that render

them sufficient for safe use for the type(s) of aeroplane
and operation(s) concerned.
64
authorization of aerodromes/ heliports by
operators …cont’d
These facilities or provisions include;
• availability/ accessibility within the time period required ,

runway characteristics (length, etc..) and
• available services (ATC, ATS, lighting, CAT II I III, etc..) in

terms of the type of operation and the associated
performance requirements.
65
Aerodrome/ heliports operating minima
 In addition to ensuring the use of suitable aerodromes,
the operator must also specify operating minima for each
departure-, destination- and alternate aerodrome.
 If requested, such operating minima may require an

additional surcharge from the relevant authority.
 Aerodrome operating minima are conditions with regard

to certain local conditions, such as the Runway Visual
Range (RVR) and the cloud base (ceiling).
66
Aerodrome/ heliports operating minima
cont’d
 In general, the minima for a specific type of approach and
landing procedure are considered applicable
– if the ground equipment shown on the respective chart

required for the intended procedure is operative,
– if the aeroplane systems required for the type of

approach are operative,
– if the required aeroplane performance criteria are met

and, of course,
– if the crew is qualified accordingly. 67
Departure and Approach procedures
 With regard to the operating manual, an operator must
ensure that;
• instrument departure and approach procedures
established by the state in which the aerodrome is
located are used.
• Different procedures to those required may only be
implemented by an operator if they have been approved
by the state in which the aerodrome is located and are
accepted by the authority.
• However, the commander may accept an ATC clearance
to deviate from a notified departure or arrival route, pro
vided obstacle clearance criteria are observed and all
operating requirements (minima etc..) are met. 68
Parameters for noise abatement
procedures
• In view of the required take-off, landing and approach
procedures, the operator must also provide for appropriate
operating procedures, which take account of noise
abatement.
• However, safety has priority over noise reduction in all cases
and such procedures must ensure that operations are simple
and safe to conduct.
• Noise abatement procedures must not exert a significant or

additional workload on the crew during the critical phases of a
flight.
• If this is the case, the procedure is not permitted and will not
be approved. 69
Parameters for noise abatement
procedures
• In principle, the operator must specify two different noise
abatement procedures for each type of aircraft.
• These must include a procedure to minimize noise in

noise-sensitive areas in close proximity to the runwayin-
use (NADP 1).
• A further procedure for minimizing noise in areas at a

greater distance from the runway (NADP 2).
• These distant or close proximity procedures are each

based on the distance to the aerodrome/runways in use.70
Noise abatement…Cont’d
Remarks: VZF describes the airspeed with flaps retracted.
71
Noise Abatement
• Altitudes specified in meters and feet, and heights and

airspeeds given in kilometers per hour and knots, must also
be considered as operationally identical for the purpose of this
procedure.
• In addition, the minimum altitude for the transition to climb

power/thrust is 800 ft, however the operator may define
higher altitudes like 1,000 or 1,500 ft as well.
72
Routes and areas of operations
• An operator must ensure that ;
• operations are only conducted along routes or
within areas wherein certain criteria are met and;
that operations are conducted in accordance with

any restrictions on certain routes or the areas of
operation, imposed by the authority.
• These may include, for example, temporary restrictions and

closures.
73
Routes and areas of operations…cont’d
The above-mentioned conditions for following a specific route
or for flying in a certain area of operation are:
• The availability of ground-based facilities, ground services

and weather services, all of which must also be adequate
for the planned flight operation.
Examples are radio stations or radar installations.
• The performance of the aeroplane intended to be used
must comply with the requirements.
• The equipment of the aeroplane intended to be used must
meet the minimum requirements for the planned flight
operation.
Examples of this are RNAV equipment for RNAV routes or areas of
operation. 74
Routes and areas of operations…
cont’d
• Appropriate maps and charts must be available.
• If twin-engine aeroplanes are used, an adequate

aerodrome must be available within the area of
operation.
• If single-engine aeroplanes are used, surfaces must be

available which permit a safe forced landing to be
executed.
75
Additional specific navigation
performance requirements
All navigation equipment that is required for the execution
of the approach procedure and not mentioned in the
procedure identification shall be identified in notes on the
chart. For example:
 “VOR required” on an NDB approach.

 “Dual ADF required” when required on an NDB
approach where two ADFs are required.
 “When inbound from XXX NDB, change over to YYY
NDB at midpoint.”
 “DME required” on a VOR/DME arc approach.
76
Additional specific navigation
performance requirements cont’d
The OCA/H for each aircraft category shall be published in the minimum box on
the chart.
Where an OCA/H is predicated on a specific navigation aid (e.g. stepdown fixes),

or a specific RNAV functionality (e.g. LNAV/VNAV), or
an RNP value, this shall be clearly identified. For example
77
Maximum distance from adequate aerodrome for two
engine airplanes without an ETOPS approval
• For two engine airplanes without an ETOPS approval,

certain rules apply with regard to the maximum allowable
distance from an adequate(or alternate) aerodrome.
• The exact values depend on the aeroplane performance

class.
• (The maximum take off mass and other factors which are defined in
CAT.OP.MPA.140 of the commission regulation(EU) No 965/2012)
78
Maximum distance from adequate aerodrome for two
engine airplanes without an ETOPS approval…cont’d
79
Requirement for alternate airport
accessibility for ETOPS operations
• All flights with twin-engine aircraft that exceed the values
shown in the previous section require an "ETOPS
approval".
• Under this authorization, the operator is granted a larger

maximum distance to an adequate en-route alternate
aerodrome.
• When preparing for the flight, the operator must then

always ensure that a suitable en-route alternate
aerodrome is available within the approved distance for
each ETOPS route.
80
Minimum flight altitude
The State of the Operator shall require that in establishing

the aerodrome operating minima which will apply to any
particular operation, full account shall be taken of:
a) the type, performance and handling characteristics of the
aeroplane;
b) the composition of the flight crew, their competence and
experience;
c) the dimensions and characteristics of the runways which
may be selected for use;
d) the adequacy and performance of the available visual
and non-visual ground aids;
81
Minimum flight altitude
e) the equipment available on the aeroplane for the

purpose of navigation and/or control of the flight path
during the approach to landing and the missed approach;
f) the obstacles in the approach and missed approach areas
and the obstacle clearance altitude/height for the instrument
approach procedures;
g) the means used to determine and report meteorological
conditions; and
h) the obstacles in the climb-out areas and necessary
clearance margins.
82
Components of fuel policy
In computing the fuel and oil required for all aeroplanes at
least the following shall be considered:
a) meteorological conditions forecast;
b) expected air traffic control routings and traffic delays;
c) for IFR flight, one instrument approach at the destination
aerodrome, including a missed approach;
d) the procedures prescribed in the operations manual for
loss of pressurization, where applicable, or failure of one
power unit while en route; and
e) any other conditions that may delay the landing of the
aeroplane or increase fuel and/or oil consumption.
83
Components of fuel policy…
cont’d
Here , a distinction is drawn between pre-flight fuel planning and
in-flight Planning procedures.
Pre-flight fuel calculation must include;
 Taxi fuel(prior to takeoff and fuel for APU.)
 Trip fuel( takeoff , departure , cruise flight ,approach and landing)
 Reserve fuel consisting of:
• Contingency fuel
 5% of the planned trip fuel
 Fuel sufficient for 20 min
 Fuel for five min at holding flight time at 1500ft above
des.ADM .
• Alternate fuel-Missed app. From MDA/DH, climb after go around,
cruise flight, descent, approach to landing and landing at Alt.Adm.
84
Components of fuel policy…cont’d
 Final reserve fuel:
• Piston engine(propeller engine)----45min
• Turbine engine(Jet engine)------------30min
 Additional fuel-Engine failure(one engine inoperative)
 Extra fuel-calculated and required by PIC.
85
Carrying persons with reduced mobility
• In order to transport persons with reduced mobility
(Persons with Reduced Mobility - PRM), the operator
must have the appropriate procedures in place.
• Aircraft are generally equipped with special seating for

this purpose.
• An operator must at least ensure that PRMs are not

allocated ,nor occupy, seats where their presence could
imped safety or where safety restrictions apply.
86
Carrying persons with reduced
mobility…cont’d
 That includes Impeding the crew in their duties,
obstructing access to emergency equipment, or
impeding the emergency evacuation of the aeroplane.
 The commander must always be notified when PRMs

are to be carried on board.
 This is usually done by the ramp agent.
87
Carrying persons with reduced
mobility…cont’d
88
Operator’s responsibilities for carriage of
inadmissible passengers, deportees, or persons
with custody
• More or less the same applies to passengers who have

been refused entry to the country or who are deportees.
• The commander must be notified when the above-

mentioned persons are to be carried on board.
• An operator must establish procedures for the

transportation of inadmissible passengers, in order to
ensure the safety of the aeroplane and its occupants.
89
Stowage of baggage and cargo in
passenger cabin
• The stowage of baggage or cargo in the passenger
cabin is subject to special requirements in order to
ensure both the safety of passengers and the flight as a
whole.
• This means that hand baggage taken into the passenger

cabin must be adequately and securely stowed.
• Also, certain criteria must be met with regard to size and

weight, as the passenger cabin only provides limited
space for baggage. 90
passenger cabin…cont’d
All baggage must be stored away safely in appropriate
baggage compartments.
In general , the following regulations apply to the stowage of

passenger baggage and cargo:
 All items must be properly secured so as to prevent

their displacement or movement;
 The weight restrictions that apply to stowage space

may not be exceeded;
91
 Under seat stowage areas must not be used unless the
seat is equipped with a restraint bar and there is adequate
space under the seat;
 No items may be stowed in the toilets;
 Baggage may only be placed against bulkheads that are
capable of restraining articles against movement

forwards, sideways or upwards;
 Baggage and cargo placed in lockers must not be of such

size that they prevent latched doors from being closed
securely; 92
 Baggage and cargo must not be placed where it can

impede access to emergency equipment and exits;
 Checks must be made before take-off, before landing, and

whenever the "fasten seat belts" signs are illuminated or it
is otherwise so ordered to ensure that baggage is stowed
in accordance with the above regulations.
93
Passenger seating and emergency
evacuation
• The same requirements apply to passenger seating as to
baggage and cargo.
• The operator must ensure that passengers are seated

where, in the event that an emergency evacuation is
required, they may best assist and least hinder
evacuation from the aeroplane (assistance in the sense
of an orderly evacuation of the aircraft).
• In order to ensure that passengers know exactly what to

do in the event of an emergency, they must be
adequately briefed.
94
Passenger briefing regarding emergency
equipment and exit
• The briefing is conducted verbally and can be partially or fully
supported by the use of audio-visuals displayed on the video screens
on the aeroplane.
• Many airlines have come up with ideas to increase the attention of the
passengers during these announcements and briefings.
• Some airlines use famous actors in their videos and bring a certain
degree of humor into play.
• These videos are definitely educational and fulfill their objective.
• In addition, passengers must be provided with a safety-briefing card.

( have picture-type instructions and found in the seat pocket in front of
the passenger.)
95
Passenger briefing regarding emergency
equipment and exit…cont’d
Before take-off
• Regulations regarding smoking on board (smoking is generally forbidden);
• Back of the seat to the upright position and tray table stowed;
• Location of emergency exits;
• Location and use of floor proximity escape path markings
(light strips on the cabin floor);
• Stowage of hand baggage;
• Restrictions on the use of hand-held electronic devices;
• Location and contents of the safety-briefing card;
• The use of safety belts and/or safety harnesses, including how to fasten
and unfasten the safety belts and/or safety harnesses;
• Location and use of supplemental oxygen equipment
(this is to be demonstrated by the cabin crew);
• Location and use of lifejackets, as far as these are necessary
(this is to be demonstrated by the cabin crew).
96
Passenger briefing regarding emergency equipment
and exit…cont’d
After take-off
Information regarding smoking regulations and the use of seat belts, including
continuous use of seat belts regardless of any announcements. 97
Flight preparation forms to be completed
before flight
Operational flight plan
The minimum requirement for flight preparation in accordance

with OPS 1 is the development and submission of an
operational flight plan.
The operational flight plan must include at least the following

additional information:
• Route and navigation planning, including Alternate
Destinations;
• Weather information;
• Aircraft mass and balance;
• Fuelling/refueling;
• NOTAMs 98
Commander's responsibilities during
flight preparation
A flight shall not be commenced until flight preparation forms have been
completed certifying that the pilot-in-command is satisfied that:
• The aeroplane must be airworthy;
• The aeroplane may not be operated contrary to the
provisions of the Configuration Deviation List (CDL) and
must fulfill all requirements in this list;
• The minimum instruments and equipment required for the
flight to be conducted must be available;
• The instruments and equipment are in operable condition
except as provided in the MEL;
• Those parts of the operations manual that are required for
the conduct of the flight must be available;
99
Commander's responsibilities during flight
preparation …cont’d
• Documents and forms
• Current maps, charts and associated documentation or
equivalent data must be available.
This must include any conversion tables .
• Ground facilities and services required for the planned
flight must be available and adequate (this is usually done using
NOTAMs);
• The provisions specified in the operations manual must

be complied with for the planned flight (with respect
to fuel, minimum oil and oxygen requirements,
aerodrome operating minima etc..);
• The load must be evenly distributed and properly secured;
• The aircraft must be operated within approved limits
(take-off mass etc..). 100
Rules for aerodromes/Heliports selection
(including ETOPS configuration)
• The operator must also meet certain requirements for the selection of
aerodromes/airports.
• An operator must also establish procedures for the selection of

aerodromes when planning a flight.
• This applies both to destination aerodromes and alternate aerodromes.

aerodromes must be "adequate aerodromes".
• The operator must also select alternate aerodromes, regardless of the type
of operation to be conducted.
• In principle, all alternate aerodromes should be indicated in the operational

flight plan.
101
Rules for aerodromes/Heliports selection
(including ETOPS configuration)…cont’d
Take-off alternate
 The take-off alternate comes into effect as soon as a landing is required

more or less immediately after take-off and if a landing on the departure
runway is no longer possible.
 This is especially the case if technical problems occur after take-off that
require the aircraft to land.
 The landing may not be possible because of minimum weather

requirements.
• For twin-engine aeroplanes ---within a flight time of one hour at a one-engine-
inoperative cruising speed;
• For twin-engine aeroplanes ---within the ETOPS approved distance for the
take-off alternate, which is a maximum flight time of two hours;
• For three- and four-engine aeroplanes, -- within a flight time of two hours at a
102
one-engine-inoperative cruising speed.
Planning minima for IFR flights
• Other planning minima apply to individual aerodromes
with regard to IFR flight operations.
• Planning minima mean nothing more than that the

respective aerodrome may only be considered as a
destination alternate if certain minimum criteria are met.
• We differentiate between the following categories of

aerodromes.
103
Planning minima for IFR flights…cont’d
Take off alternate
An operator may only select an aerodrome as a take-off

alternate aerodrome when;
the appropriate weather reports or forecasts or any
combination thereof indicate that,
during a period commencing one hour before and ending one

hour after the estimated time of arrival at the aerodrome,
the weather conditions will be at or above the applicable

aerodrome operating minima.
104
Planning minima for IFR flights…cont’d
Destination alternate
 An operator may only select the destination aerodrome

when the appropriate weather reports or forecasts indicate
that ,
during a period commencing one hour before and

ending one hour after the estimated time of arrival at the
Aerodrome,
the weather conditions will be at or above the applicable

planning minima as follows:
105
Planning minima for IFR flights…
cont’d
Precision approach
 The minima for a precision approach must be met.
 Only the RVR and visual range are to be considered and

apply as planning minima.
 The exact values are dependent on the aerodrome and

operator and therefore cannot be precisely specified here.
 An example of this is the RVR values on an approach

chart. If this value is included in the forecast then it
satisfies the planning minima. 106
Planning minima for IFR
flights…cont’d
Non-precision approach
 Non-precision approach minima must be met.
 Here, the RVR/visibility and cloud base (ceiling) must

be considered and therefore apply jointly as the
planning minima.
 The exact values are dependent on the aerodrome and

Operator and therefore cannot be precisely specified
here.
107
Rules for fueling/refueling
An aeroplane shall not be refueled when passengers are
• embarking,
• on board or
• disembarking unless;
it is properly attended by qualified personnel ready to

initiate and direct an evacuation of the aeroplane by the
most practical and expeditious means available.
108
Rules for fueling/refueling …cont’d
When refueling with passengers embarking, on board or
disembarking:
 Two-way communication shall be maintained between the ground crew

supervising the refueling and the qualified personnel on board the
aeroplane.
 Crew, staff and passengers must be warned that ref /de-fueling is to
take place.
 The 'Fasten Seat Belts' signs must be off and
 passengers must be instructed to unfasten their seat belts and refrain
from smoking.
 The 'NO SMOKING' signs must be on.
 Areas with exits and evacuation chutes must be kept clear.
 If the presence of fuel vapor is detected inside the aeroplane, or any
other hazard arises during re/defueling, fueling must be stopped 109
immediately.
Crew members at stations
 Both flight crew and cabin crew members have assigned
stations.
 cabin crew members must take up their assigned stations

during the critical phases of the flight
o take-off,
o departure,
o approach,
o landing.
110
Crew members at stations…cont’d
Additional regulations apply to cockpit personnel.
The following applies:

• Each flight crew member required to be on flight deck duty must be
at his/her assigned station.
 During take-off and landing,
 During all other phases of flight,
Unless his/her absence is necessary
 for the performance of his/her duties in connection with

the operation,
 or for physiological needs.
 each flight crew member required to be on flight deck duty
must remain alert at all times.
111
Use of passenger seats and safety belts
harnesses
As seat belts and safety harnesses are essential to ensuring
safety, requirements also apply to their use in an aeroplane.
The following table shows the regulations that apply.
Flight phase Who needs to be strapped in?
Taxiing Passengers, cockpit personnel (once at their stations)
Take-off Passengers, cockpit personnel (once on the seat), cabin crew
Cruise flight Passengers, cockpit crew (once at their stations)
Landing Passengers, cockpit personnel (once on the seat), cabin crew
Any other critical phase at Passengers, cockpit personnel (once on the seat), cabin crew
the discretion of the 112
commander
Use of passenger seats and safety
belts…cont’d
 Normally, one passenger is permitted to occupy one
passenger seat.
 If any infant below two years of age is carried by adult on a

single passenger seat.
 The infant must be secured and restrained with an

appropriate safety harness and child restraint device.
113
Securing passenger cabin and galley
requirement
 The operator must establish procedures that ensure that

before taxiing, take-off and landing all exits and escape
paths are unobstructed,
 The commander must ensure that before take-off and

landing, and If he deems it necessary, all equipment and
luggage must be safely secured.
114
PIC’s responsibility regarding smoking
on board
 In principle, smoking on board an aeroplane is not legally
permitted and is generally prohibited.
 This is why all airlines have implemented a "No

Smoking Policy".
 However, this is rather due to health concerns than to

legal regulations.
115
Smoking on board…cont’d
 Nevertheless, there are some cases in which the
commander must ensure that no person on board is
allowed to smoke. These are:
 When ever it is deemed necessary in the interest of

safety (e.g. very strong turbulence);
 While the aeroplane is on the ground, unless

specifically permitted in accordance with procedures
defined in the Operations Manual;
116
Smoking on board…cont’d
 Outside designated smoking areas, in the aisle(s) and in
the toilet(s)- these areas are marked with 'no smoking’
signs;
 In cargo compartments and/or other areas where cargo

is carried which is not stored in flame-resistant
containers or covered by flame-resistant materials;
 In those areas of the cabin where oxygen is being

supplied (for example, when a sudden drop or loss of
pressure occurs). 117
PIC’s responsibilities regarding
meteorological conditions
Weather conditions have a significant impact on the safety of a
flight,
The commander has special responsibilities with regard to the

decision as to whether the flight may be conducted or not.
regardless of the flight rules, the commander must satisfy

his/herself that, according to the information available to
him/her,
 the weather at the aerodrome,
 the condition of the runway intended to be used and
 the visibility in the take-off direction of the aeroplane
do not prevent a safe take-off and departure. 118
PIC’s …Meteorological conditions…cont’d
Instrument flight conditions(IFR)
The commander may only commence with the take-off when

the latest information available indicates that,
• At the expected time of arrival, the weather conditions at

the destination aerodrome are at or above the Planning
applicable aerodrome operating minima.
119
PIC’s Meteorological conditions…cont’d
VFR conditions
On a VFR flight, a commander may only commence take-off when;
the appropriate weather reports or forecasts indicate that
 the meteorological conditions along the route or

 that part of the route
to be flown under VFR conditions will, at the appropriate time, be

such as to allow flight under VFR conditions.
120
PIC’s responsibility regarding
ice and other contaminants
Here, a distinction is drawn between ground procedures and
flight procedures
Ground procedures
An operator must establish procedures to be followed when
ground de-icing and anti-icing and related inspections of the
aeroplane(s) are necessary.
The commander may not commence take-off unless the

external surfaces are clear of any deposit that might adversely
affect the performance and/or controllability of the aeroplane.
If this is not the case, then the commander may not 121
commence the flight.
PIC’s responsibility regarding ice and
other contaminants …cont’d
Flight procedures
An operator must also establish procedures for flights in

expected or actual icing conditions.
A commander may not commence a flight nor intentionally

fly into expected or actual icing conditions unless;
 the aeroplane is properly certified and adequately

equipped to cope with such conditions.
122
PIC’s responsibility regarding fuel to be
carried and fuel management
The PIC may only commence a flight or continue a flight in
the event of in-flight pre-planning when he is satisfied that;
• the aeroplane carries at least the planned amount of
usable fuel and oil to complete the flight safely.
During the flight the commander must conduct a check of the

quantities of fuel and fuel management to ensure that ;
• the fuel at the destination place is not less than the
amount required alternate fuel plus
• final reserve fuel, or the fuel, final reserve,
if no alternate aerodrome is required. 123

PIC’s responsibility…Fuel supply and fuel
management… cont’d
1. A commander must ensure that in-flight fuel checks are
carried out at regular intervals.
• The usable remaining fuel must be recorded and evaluated.
2. The results of this review must be used to:
• Compare the actual consumption with planned consumption;
• Determine the expected usable fuel remaining on arrival at the

destination aerodrome.
124
PIC’s responsibility…Fuel supply and
fuel management cont’d
3. Review the residual amount of fuel to determine whether a flight to an
alternate aerodrome is required.
• Determine if the expected usable fuel remaining on arrival at the

destination aerodrome is not less than the required final reserve fuel, if
this is not the case.
• If fuel is required for an alternate aerodrome, the calculation must

determine that the expected usable fuel remaining on arrival at the
destination aerodrome is not less than the required alternate fuel plus
final reserve fuel.
4. The commander must declare an emergency when calculated usable fuel

on landing, at the nearest adequate aerodrome where a safe landing can be
performed, is less than final reserve fuel.
125
Requirements for the use of supplemental
oxygen
Flight crew members engaged in performing duties essential

to the safe operation of an aeroplane in flight require the use
of supplemental oxygen continuously whenever;
 cabin altitude exceeds 10,000 ft. for a period in excess of
30 minutes;
 The cabin altitude exceeds 13,000 ft. as soon as
immediately.
126
Ground proximity detection reaction
Ops 1 also specifies certain requirements regarding the

response to ground proximity detection.
When undue proximity to the ground is detected by any

flight crew member or by a ground proximity warning
system,
 the commander or the pilot to whom conduct of the
flight has been delegated must ensure that corrective
action is initiated immediately to establish safe flight
conditions.
127
Requirements for the use of ACAS
The term "ACAS" is the abbreviation of “ Airborne Collision

Avoidance System".
• An operator must ensure that appropriate systems are used

on board its aeroplanes and in flight in a mode that enables
Resolution Advisories(RA) to be produced with respect to
ground proximity and airborne collision avoidance.
• an operator must establish procedures to ensure that when
undue proximity to another aircraft is detected, the
commander or the pilot to whom conduct of the flight has
been delegated can take corrective action indicated by such
an advisory system.
128
Requirements for the use of ACAS…
cont’d
The corrective action must:

 Never be in a sense opposite to that indicated by the RA
(response advisory);
 Be in the correct sense indicated by the RA even if this is

in conflict with the vertical element of an ATC instruction;
 Be the minimum possible to comply with the RA indication.
 When a "conflict" is resolved, the aeroplane must promptly

return to the terms of the ATC instructions or clearance
129
or follow further instructions given by ATC.
PIC’s responsibility regarding approach
and landing
• the commander must obtain information regarding the
weather conditions and the condition of the runway before
the approach to landing.
• Taking this information into account, the commander must

then assess whether a safe approach, a safe landing or a
safe missed approach can be carried out.
• An instrument approach can be carried out regardless of the

reported RVR/visibility up to the outer marker , or equivalent
position.
130
PIC’s responsibility regarding approach
and landing…cont’d
 If, after passing the outer marker or equivalent position

in accordance with (a) above, the reported
RVR/visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the
approach may be continued to DA/H or MDAIH.
 Where no outer marker or equivalent position exists,

the PIC shall make the decision to continue or abandon
the approach before descending below 1,000 ft above
the aerodrome on the final approach segment.
131
Circumstances under which a report
shall be submitted
• If certain incidents have occurred during the flight, then
an assessment must be made as to whether such
incidents are to be reported.
• In principle, a distinction is made between an

– "incident",
– "serious incident" and
– an "accident".
132
shall be submitted …cont’d
Accident
An accident is any of the following:
• An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft

that takes place between the time any person boards the
aircraft with the intention of flight and the time at which all
persons have disembarked;
• A person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of:
 Being in the aircraft;
 Direct contact with any part of the aircraft, including
parts that have become detached from the aircraft;
 Direct exposure to the effects of a turbine propeller or
jet engine. 133
• The aircraft sustains damage or structural failure that
adversely affects the structural strength, performance or
flight characteristics of the aircraft and would normally
require major repair or replacement of the affected
component.
o This does not include damage to the engine (including

cowling) propellers, wing tips , antennas, tires, brakes,
fairings, small dents or puncture holes in the aircraft skin.
• The aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible (after

crashing in water).
134
Serious incident
A serious incident involving circumstances indicating that
an accident nearly occurred.
Since this is very abstract definition, it is illustrated in the
following section by several examples but not all. In
reality , there are many other cases that would qualify as
serious incidents.
• Landings and attempted landings at a closed airport
or on a closed runway;
• Fire on the aircraft that could not be extinguished;
• Incapacitation of any of the flight crew members
• Overshooting the runway on landing;
• Meteorological conditions that result in the operation
135
of the aircraft beyond its permissible flight envelope.
Incident
An incident is an occurrence, other than an accident or

serious incident (associated with the operation of an aircraft)
that affects or could impact the safety of operation.
Some examples of incidents are listed below:

• Smoke developing from the undercarriage when parking
the aircraft in its parking position;

• Engine failure after take-off, followed by a safe landing;
• Problems with flaps whilst making an approach to
landing and during the landing. 136
All weather operations
137
All weather operations
• Although the requirements for the selection of adequate or
suitable aerodromes, minimum VFR conditions etc.. are
specified within a comprehensible and simple framework,
the requirements for "all weather operations" are much
more extensive, for reasons which may be quite obvious.
• The worse the weather, especially in terms of visibility

and cloud base (ceiling), the higher the demands on man
and machine.
• This is why certain minima must be satisfied in order to

operate/fly in the certain weather conditions. 138
All weather operations…cont’d
Minimum operating requirements for airports
 The operator must establish operating minima for each
destination aerodrome.
 Such minima may not be lower than any of the values
described in the following topics. However, they may exceed
these values.
 If an aeroplane is equipped with HUD (Head-Up Display),
HUDLS (Head-Up Display Landing System) or EVS (Enhanced
Vision System) equipment, some authorities may also
promulgate regulations for reduced visibility minima associated
with the use of HUD or EVS, but only after approval has been
given.
139
All weather operations…cont’d
 An operator must establish the following minima, for each

aerodrome planned to be used:
• Take-off minima such as minimum RVR/visibility;
• Minima for CAT I approaches and non-precision
approaches;
• Minima for CAT I approaches, which lie below the CAT
standard (explained in more detail in the following
sections);
• Minima for CAT II approaches;
• Minima for CAT III approaches;
• Minima for operations with EVS systems;
• Minima for circling approaches;
• Minima for VFR approaches. 140
Parameter to be considered when
establishing minima
Operator must include certain criteria in the procedures:
 Type, performance and handling characteristics of the aerodrome
 Composition, competence and experience of the flight crew
 Dimension and characteristics of the runway
 The adequacy and performance of the visual and non visual ground aids
 The equipment available on the aeroplane
 The obstacle on the approach and missed approach area and OCH
 The means used to determine and report meteorological conditions
 The obstacle in the climb out areas and necessary clearance margins
141
Aircraft categories
 All aircraft are classified according to one of the

categories A to E.
 The criteria taken into consideration for the classification of

aeroplanes by categories is the indicated airspeed at the
threshold.
 This airspeed is called VAT (Vabove Threshold) and

specified as an lAS (Indicated Air Speed).
142
Aircraft categories…cont’d
The VAT must correspond to whichever of the following is
the greater value:
 1.3 of the stalling speed (Vso ) or;
 1.23 multiplied by the stalling speed in landing

configuration at the maximum certificated
landing mass. (Vs1g)
143
Classification of aeroplanes
144
Define the following terms
• Circling Approach
• Low visibility procedures
• Low visibility take off
• Visual approach
• Flight control system
• Fail-passive flight control system
• Fail-operational flight control system
• Fail-operational hybrid landing system
145
Definitions of terms
• Circling approach.
An extension of an instrument approach procedure which
provides for visual circling of the aerodrome prior to landing.
• Low visibility procedures
A procedure called LVP (Low Visibility Procedure) performed
in low visibility conditions always applies when the following
CAT approaches are made:
• Lower than Standard Category I approaches;
• Approaches under CAT II conditions;
• Approaches under CAT III conditions;
• Take-offs in low visibility (RVR less than 400 meters).
146
Definitions of terms cont’d
 Low visibility Take-Off (LVTO)

If there is an RVR of less than 400 meters at the
time of take-off, this is defined as a "Low Visibility
Take-off”
 Visual approach
A visual approach is a flight procedure performed
when either part or all of an instrument approach
procedure is not completed and the remaining part
of the approach is executed with visual reference
to the terrain.
147
Flight control system
-This term denotes a system that includes an automatic

landing system and/or a hybrid landing system.
The term “hybrid" means that there are two independent

systems.
148
 A Fail passive flight control system

• A fail-passive control system includes an autopilot with
an automatic landing mode.
• In the event of a system failure, there is no significant
out-of-trim state or deviation of flight path or attitude.
• The aeroplane must be manually controlled by the pilot

from the moment a failure occurs.
• This would then make pre-determined approaches like a

CAT III B approach impossible.
149
 Fail-operational flight control system
• A flight control system is fail-operational if, in the event of
a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and
landing, can be completed automatically.
• It includes an autopilot with an automatic landing mode.
• In the event of a failure, the automatic landing system

will operate as a fail-passive system.
• The system automatically switches back to a fail-passive

flight control system. Manual control is therefore not
required. 150
Fail-operational hybrid landing system
• This system consists of two independent components -

hence the name "hybrid".
• The main system is a fail-passive flight control system.

The second system is an independent guidance system,
such as a HUDLS (Head-Up Display Landing System).
• Should the main system fail, the second system is

triggered and allows the pilot, with the additional aid of
the guidance system, to perform a manual continuation
151
of the flight under minimum visibility conditions
General operating rules for low-visibility
operations
 Low visibility flight operations are only permitted if such
operations are approved by the authority.
 Such approval includes a number of continuous checks and

verifications that are required, even after the approval has
been granted.
 In addition, there are several other general rules and

regulations that apply, which depend on the type of
operations conducted by an operator.
 These are listed in the following table. 152

operations
153
operations
154
operations
155
operations
156
operations
157
Low-visibility operations –
aerodrome/heliport considerations
 Aerodrome requirements for low visibility operations
Regardless of any approval, an operator must ensure that
CAT Il/CAT III operations are only conducted at Aerodromes
that are approved for such operations by the state.
 In addition, the operator must verify that certain procedures

are established and applied for aerodromes where low visibility
operations are performed ("Low Visibility Procedures"- LVP).
158
Training and qualification requirements
…to conduct low-visibility operations
Flight crew requirements
 The regulations and requirements that apply to
aerodromes also apply to the flight crew.
 Flight crew members may therefore only conduct low
visibility operations or apply low visibility procedures after
certain requirements have been met.
Each flight crew member should:
1. Be trained and checked in accordance with a detailed
syllabus approved by the authority and included in the
operations manual. The following criteria apply:
159
160
161
2. A qualification for the aircraft type concerned. Crew members are
required to have completed all relevant training for each mode of
operation according to the above list. Additionally, commanders and
pilots, who are assigned flight duties relating to certain types of
operation and/or to the use of certain flight systems are required to
provide proof of experience gained with a particular type of aeroplane.
This includes:
 Cat II operation: 50 hours of flight time or 20 flight sectors;
 CAT III operation: 50 hours of flight time or 20 flight sectors;
 CAT II operation with manual landing and HUDLS: 100 hours of
flight time or 40 flight sectors;
 CAT Ill operation with manual landing and HUDLS: 100 hours of
flight time or 40 flight sectors.
162
Operating procedure for low-visibility
operations
Operating procedures for poor visibility
 Low visibility flights are based on visual references by

the pilot and consist of the following elements:
 Manual take-offs with or without the use of an electronic
guidance system or HUDLS etc..;
 Approach with HUDL, etc..;
 Automatic approach to below DH with manual landing
and roll-out;
 Automatic approach to below DH with automatic landing
and manual roll-out;
163
Operating procedure for low-visibility
operations
In addition to the standard precautions taken, the commander shall
satisfy himself/herself that:
• The status of all on-board facilities is sufficient (e.g. verification of
NOTAMs, ensuring that the ILS etc.. is faultless and operates within the
correct tolerance range, and that all other technical systems are ready
for operation etc..);
• Appropriate LVPs (Low Visibility Procedures) are in force according to
information received from Air Traffic Services, before commencing
these operations;
• The flight crew members are properly qualified.
The actual procedures that are applicable to low visibility operations
are determined by the operator and must be included in the operations
manual
164
Operator’s and commander's responsibilities
regarding minimum equipment for low-visibility
operations
Responsibility of the operator and commander
 An operator is not only required to incorporate all necessary

procedures in the operations manual, but also the procedures
for the required minimum equipment.
 This includes the minimum equipment required for take-off
and approach operations in low visibility conditions.
 These procedures all determine the equipment and systems
required for the respective flight operation.
 According to these rules, the commander must ensure that all
the necessary equipment and systems required for the
respective operation are on board and fully operational.
165
VFR operating minima
• VFR operations are divided into two parts, to which

different minima apply.
• The first and general area is the actual VFR operation,
which must be conducted according to visual flight rules
and certain conditions in terms of visibility and cloud
clearance.
• You probably still remember this if you already have a
PPL(A) license.
• Nevertheless , the corresponding minima are relevant to
the exams and are therefore summarized in the following
166
table.
167
Aerodrome operating minima
Aerodrome minima
The commander may only commence take-off if the following conditions
are met:
• Take-off alternate - the commander may not commence take-off unless
the weather conditions at the aerodrome of departure are equal to or
better than applicable minima for landing at that aerodrome;
• RVR/visibility - the commander may only commence take-off if:
 The reported RVR/visibility is equal to or better than the required
minimum;
 The commander can determine that the RVR/visibility along the take-
off runway is equal to or better than the required minimum (when the
reported meteorological visibility is below that required for take-off and
RVR is not reported). The visibility may therefore be determined by
the commander. For example, based on the characteristics and
features visible along the runway, the distances of which are clearly
identifiable. 168
Take- off minima
The take-off minima always depend on the RVR or the visibility of

the runway.
 The decisive factor is always the RVR ( Runway visual Range).
 If RVR is not available, the meteorological visibility is used.
169
Take- off minima…cont’d
 The exact values in terms of RVR/visibility will depend

on the aircraft performance and the existing and
operational ground equipment.
 For multi-engine aircraft, which are still able to abort the

take-off or continue the take-off and climb to at least
1,500 ft AGL (above ground level), the following values
are considered as the applicable minima.
170
Ground facilities RVR/Visibility
No lighting-daytime operations only 500m
Edge lights and centerline marking 250m for aircraft of CAT. <> D -
300m for aircraft of CAT. = D
Runway edge lighting and centerline 200m for aircraft of CAT.<> D

marking 250m for aircraft of CAT. = D
Edge light and centerline marking and 150 m for aircraft of CAT. <> D
multiple RVR information (starting 200m for aircraft of CAT. = D
point , midpoint and end of the
runway).
171
Non-precision approach
The minima for a non-precision approach generally lie at an MDH of
250ft and a runway visual range of depending on the ground
equipment used, variations in MDH will apply, which means that these
minima may also exceed 250 ft. The tables specify each of these
values
172
 If an approach to MDA/DA MDH/DH is continued, a decision must be
made as to whether to perform the final landing or take measures for
a missed approach.
 A pilot may not continue an approach below MDA/H unless at least
one of the following visual references for the intended runway is
distinctly visible and remains identifiable to the pilot:
• Elements of the approach lights;
• The threshold, threshold markings, threshold lights, threshold

identification lights;
• Optical glide path indicator (PAPI, etc..);
• The touchdown point itself or its markings or lighting;
• The runway edge lights;
• Other visual reference aids approved by the aviation authority
173
CAT I , II &III
174
CAT I, II and III
175
176
Instrument and equipment
177
Items that do not require equipment
approval
Because the use of certain instruments and equipment items are associated
with flight safety in general, there are a large number of specifications and
approval regulations that relate specifically to the aviation industry. However,
there a few exceptions:
 fuses;
 Electric torch;
 An accurate timepiece;
 Chart holder (for air charts);
 Medical equipment/dispensary;
 Megaphone;
 First Aid Kit/emergency medical equipment;
 survival and pyrotechnic signaling equipment (known colloquially as "flares"
or "flare guns");
 sea anchors and equipment for mooring, anchoring or maneuvering
seaplanes and amphibians on water;
 Restraining systems for children. 178
Flight Operations
Instruments and Equipment
 In addition to the minimum equipment necessary for the
issuance of a certificate of airworthiness,
 the instruments, equipment and flight documents
prescribed in the following paragraphs shall be;
 installed or carried, as appropriate, in aeroplanes
according to the aeroplane used and to the
circumstances under which the flight is to be conducted.
 The prescribed instruments and equipment, including
their installation, shall be approved or accepted by the
State of registry.
179
Requirement for spare fuses availability
180
Requirement for operating lights
 In terms of required lighting, it is important to distinguish between
whether the flight is conducted by day or by night.
 If flight operations are conducted by night, additional lighting
requirements apply to those that normally apply for flight operations by
day
181
Requirement for windshield wipers
Windshield wipers
If an aeroplane exceeds a maximum certificated

take-off mass of more than 5, 700 kg, it must be
equipped at each pilot station with a windshield
wiper.
182
Minimum equipment required for
day and night VFR Flights
183
Minimum equipment required for IFR
Flight
184
Required equipment for single pilot
operation under IFR
Single-pilot IFR operations
 For single-pilot IFR flight operations, the aeroplane must be

equipped with an autopilot with (at least) a fully functional
course and altitude hold mode.
 This ensures that the pilot can use the autopilot in situations
with very high workloads.
 Those who have flown as a single-pilot in IFR conditions

and have encountered a holding will appreciate its value.
185
Requirement for altitude alert system
Altitude alert system
An altitude alert system notifies the flight crew that the
aircraft will soon be reaching a pre-selected altitude or that
the aeroplane is deviating from a pre-selected altitude.
186
Requirement for altitude alert system
These systems are required for the following types of aircraft:
 Turboprop aircraft with a maximum take-off mass of more than
5,700kg or with a seating configuration for nine passengers or more
must be equipped with an altitude alerting system;
 All jet aircraft
187
Requirement for GPWS/ TAWS
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)
In addition to the altitude alert system, a Ground

Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is mandatory
for;
 All turbine aircraft with a maximum mass exceeding
5,700 kg or
 A seating configuration for nine passengers or more.
These system provides the crew with audible and

visual warnings under certain conditions.
188
Requirement for GPWS/ TAWS
189
Requirement for ACAS
 An ACAS system (Airborne Collision Avoidance System) is
mandatory for all turbine aircraft with a maximum mass
exceeding 5, 700 kg or a seating configuration for 20
passengers or more.
 The system must comply with ACAS II requirements.
 This ACAS system provides evasive recommendations on the

vertical plane in order to avoid collisions in the air.
190
Weather Radar
For the various types of aircraft that conduct night flights or

flights under instrument flight conditions , an on-board weather
radar system is to be used in areas of flight operation where
thunderstorms or other potentially hazardous weather
conditions can be expected.
Aircraft in which a weather radar system is required include
 Pressurized aeroplanes;
 Aircraft without pressurized cabin, with a maximum take-off mass
of> 5,700 kg;
 Aircraft without pressurized cabin, with a passenger seating
capacity> 9.
191
Weather Radar…cont’d
 Propeller- powered aircraft with pressurized cabin, with a
maximum take-off weight <5, 700 kg and passenger
seating capacity greater than nine can alternatively use a
different device, which can detect thunderstorms and other
potentially hazardous weather conditions.
192
Requirements for operations in icing
conditions
Operating in icing conditions
 Certain weather conditions also cause icing.
 In order to prevent this, similar regulations apply for flight

operations in icing conditions.
 For example, an aircraft may not be operated if such

weather conditions are current or anticipated unless it is
properly equipped and approved for such flight operations.
 At night, for example, an aircraft must be equipped with 193

suitable lights in order to detect the formation of ice.
The requirement for interphone system
and public address system
Inter com and interphone system
 For reasons of safety, a large number of requirements need

to be met in order to ensure an effective communication
between crew members and passengers.
 A distinction is made between the intercom for the flight

crew, the cabin crew and the cabin speaker systems.
194
Inter com and interphone system…
cont’d
1. Flight crew interphone system
 If more than one flight crew member is prescribed,

then the aeroplane must be equipped with an
interphone system with headsets and microphones for
the flight crew.
 All students will be familiar with this system after

having used this system for in-flight conversations with
the flight instructor through the use of headphones.
195
Inter com and interphone system…
cont’d
2. Crew member interphone system
 If the aeroplane has a maximum take-off mass of more than
15,000 kg or more than 19 passenger seats, it must be
equipped with an interphone system for the crew members.
This interphone system must meet the following requirements:
• The system must also function independently of the loudspeaker
system;
• It must also provide a means of two-way communication
between the flight crew compartment and each passenger
compartment, each galley located other than on a passenger
deck level and each remote crew compartment that is not on196
The requirement for interphone
system and public address system
• The equipment must be readily accessible for use from
each of the required flight crew stations in the flight crew
compartment;
• The system must be readily accessible for use at required

cabin crew member stations close to each separate or pair of
floor-level emergency exits.
• In an emergency the system must be accessible and

ready for use at floor level;
197
The requirement for interphone system and
public address system…cont’d
The alerting system must incorporate aural or visual signals
for use by flight crew members.
The system must have the following:
• The means for the recipient of a call to determine whether it

is a normal call or an emergency call, and;
• The means of two-way communication on the ground

between ground personnel and at least two flight crew
members. The system is used, for example, to communicate
with the driver of the pushback vehicle on the ground.
198
The requirement for interphone
system and public address system
199
The requirement for CVR
200
The requirement for CVR
201
The requirement for flight data recorder
• Flight data recorder
In addition to communication relating to relevant flight data
(airspeed, altitude, rate of ascent/descent etc..) and
required for the evaluation of that data in an emergency,
certain categories of aircraft must also be equipped with
flight data recorder.
This applies to aeroplanes issued with an individual
Certificate of Airworthiness effective from the following
dates:
After 0 I April 1998
• Multi-engine turbine-powered aircraft with more than 9 passenger
seats
• An aircraft with a maximum take-off mass of more than 5, 700 kg
202
Between 0 I January 1990 and 31 March 1998
• Multi-engine turbine-powered aircraft with a maximum take-off

mass of 5,700 kg or with fewer and more than 9 passenger
seats and more than 9 passenger seats
Before 0 I April 1998

• An aircraft with a maximum take-off mass of more than
5, 700 kg
203
 The FDR must be able to record the last 25hrs of flight operation. It
may reduce to 10hrs.
 The cockpit flight data recorder must start to record prior to the
aeroplane moving under its own power and continue to record until the
termination of the flight when the aeroplane is no longer capable of
moving under its own power.
 The cockpit flight data recorder must have a device to assist in its
recovery in the event of it ending up in water.
 The data recorded by the flight data recorder includes, for example,
time, pressure level, lAS , course , acceleration, longitudinal and lateral
attitude, activation and de-activation of the radio communications
system , power plant performance, flap settings etc..
204
Seats, seat safety belts, harnesses
and child restraint devices
Passengers who have already experienced a take-off will appreciate the
use of a fastened seat belt. For these and many other cases, part of OPS 1
specifies regulations for seats, seat belts etc..
An operator may not operate an aeroplane unless it is equipped with:

• A seat or berth for each person who is aged two years or more;
• A safety belt for each passenger over the age of 2 years;
• A child restraint device (for passengers younger than 24 months);
• A safety belt with shoulder harness for each flight crew seat and each additional cabin
crew seat and observer's seat - these safety belts with shoulder harness must have a
single-point release;
• Seats for cabin crew members located near required floor level emergency exits are
prescribed. The deviation from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft may not be more than
15° (relative to the seat direction).
205
Signs and notices
 Each aeroplane must be equipped with a means of
indicating to all passengers and cabin crew when seat
belts shall be fastened and when smoking is not allowed.
 If an aircraft is not equipped with such a system, it should

be ensured that the flight crew are able to view all
passenger seating from the cockpit.
 A good example of this are the seaplanes in the Maldives.

The pilots can view the passenger compartment at all times.
Because this is not generally the rule in larger passenger aircraft,
the availability of the above system is mandatory.
 In its absence, operation of the flight is not permitted.

206
The requirement for internal doors and
curtains
The following equipment must be installed on an aeroplane:
 In an aeroplane with a maximum approved seating
configuration for 20 passengers or more, a door must be
provided between the passenger compartment and the
flight deck compartment as well as a placard reading "crew
only" and a locking means to prevent passengers from
opening it without the permission of a member of the flight
crew;
 A means for opening each door that separates a
passenger compartment from another compartment that
has emergency exit provisions;
207
The requirement for internal doors and
curtains cont’d
 The means for opening must be readily accessible to
pass through a doorway or curtain separating the
passenger cabin from other areas to reach any required
emergency exit from any passenger seat;
 A placard on each internal door or adjacent to a curtain
that is the means of access to a passenger emergency
exit indicating that the door/curtain must be secured
open during take off and landing;
 A means for any member of the crew to unlock any door
that is normally accessible to passengers and that can
be locked by passengers.
208
First aid kits
 All aeroplane must be equipped with first-aid kits, readily
accessible for use in the treatment of minor ailments and
illnesses .
 An operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless it is
equipped with first-aid kits, readily accessible for use to the
following scale:
Number of passenger seats installed Number of first-aid kits required
0-100 1
101-200 2
201-300 3
301-400 4
401-500 5
501 or more 6
209
First aid kits (cont’d)
 These first-aid kits must be inspected periodically to confirm,
to the extent possible, that contents are maintained in the
condition necessary for their intended use.
 The first-aid kits must be replenished at regular intervals, in

accordance with instructions contained on their labels.
 As in cars, the contents often have a limited validity/ tenability.

If these requirements are exceeded, the respective contents
must be replaced and/or replenished.
 In order to do this, regular checks need to be made.

210
Emergency medical kit and first aid
oxygen
Emergency medical kit
 Under certain conditions, an operator must ensure that an

emergency medical kit is made available on board an aircraft.
 An aeroplane with a maximum approved seating 30 passengers

or more must be equipped with an emergency medical kit
 if any point on the planned route is more than 60 minutes flying

time (at normal cruising speed) from an aerodrome at which
qualified medical assistance could be expected to be available.
211
First aid oxygen
 In certain cases, an operator must carry undiluted
oxygen on board an aeroplane.
 This is required on pressurized aeroplanes on which at

least one cabin crew is prescribed and which operate at
altitudes above 25,000 ft.
 This system must be capable of providing oxygen for

passengers who, for physiological reasons, might require
oxygen following a cabin depressurization.
212
The carriage and use of supplemental oxygen
for passengers and crew
pressurized aeroplanes
An operator may not operate a pressurized aeroplane at
altitudes above 10,000 ft unless supplemental oxygen
equipment is provided which meets the following
requirements.
213
for passengers and crew (cont’d)
 Oxygen masks for use by flight crew members in

pressurized aeroplanes operating above 25,000 ft are of
the “quick -donning type".
 In general, the flight crew only needs to grab the mask

from the side or from below in order apply the mask over
the mouth and nose.
 The use of such masks is dependent on aircraft type and

is included in the type ratings.
214
for passengers and crew (cont’d)
Non-pressurized aeroplanes
An operator may not operate a non-pressurized aeroplane at
altitudes above 10,000 ft unless supplemental oxygen
equipment is provided which meets the following requirements.
215
Crew protective breathing equipment
Crew Protective Breathing Equipment (PBE) must be available in order

to ensure that the flight crew and cabin crew can continue to perform
their duties sufficiently in the event of an emergency.
These devices are mandatory in:

 Pressurized aeroplanes;
 Non-pressurized aeroplanes;
• Aeroplanes with a maximum certified take-off mass exceeding
5,700 kg or;
• Aeroplanes having a maximum approved seating configuration
of more than 19 seats.

216
Crew protective breathing equipment…cont’d
Of course this equipment is also subject to certain minimum requirements:

• There must be PBE equipment to protect the eyes, nose and mouth of
each flight crew member while on flight deck duty and to provide oxygen
for a period of not less than 15 minutes. If required, the supply for PBE
may be provided by the supplemental oxygen. PBE intended for flight
crew use must be conveniently located on the flight deck and be easily
accessible for immediate use.
• in addition, when the flight crew is more than one and a cabin crew
member is not carried, portable PBE must be carried on board the
aeroplane. This PBE must protect the eyes, nose and mouth of one
member of the flight crew and to provide oxygen for a period of not less
than 15 minutes.
217
Crew protective breathing equipment
(cont’d)
• There must also be a portable PBE to protect the eyes, nose and
mouth of all required cabin crew members. This PBE must also
provide breathing gas for a period of not less than 15 minutes. PBE
intended for cabin crew use must be conveniently located adjacent
to each required cabin crew member duty station.
• An additional, easily accessible portable PBE must be provided and

located at or adjacent to the hand fire extinguishers. Where the fire
extinguisher is located inside a cargo compartment, the PBE must
be stowed outside but adjacent to the entrance to that compartment.
218
Fire Extinguishers
 In order to ensure that fire extinguishers are immediately

available in the event of a fire, certain requirements are
prescribed with regarding the type, number and location of
such fire extinguishers.
 The type and quantity of extinguishing agent must be suitable

for the kinds of fires likely to occur in the compartment in
which the extinguisher is intended to be used.
 If there are people in an area, a fire extinguisher must be

used which minimizes the hazard of toxic gas concentration.
219
Fire Extinguishers Cont’d
The following table shows the number of extinguishers required on
board an aeroplane.
220
Crash axes and crowbars
Crash axes and crowbars

In order to make areas behind the cladding and panels of an
aeroplane immediately accessible, crash axes and crowbars
are required.
These may not be visible to passengers. A certain number of
crash axes and crowbars are required depending on the aircraft
type:
• An aeroplane with a maximum certified take-off mass
exceeding 5, 700 kg or having a maximum approved
seating configuration for ten passengers or more;
• At least one crash axe or crowbar on the flight deck;
221
Crash axes and crowbars (cont’d)
Aeroplanes with a maximum approved seating configuration of

200 passengers or more;
• An additional crash axe or crowbar carried and located in or near the
most rearward galley area.
Image 47: Crash axes and crowbar
222
Emergency break-in points
 Some aeroplanes have markings for break-in points on the
exterior of the fuselage.
 These markings indicate to rescue teams where an aeroplane
can be accessed if the doors of an aeroplane cannot be
opened.
 If designated areas of the fuselage suitable for break-in by
rescue crews in emergency are marked on an aeroplane,
these markings must meet the following requirements:
 The color of the markings must be red or yellow.
 If the corner markings are more than two meters apart,
intermediate lines 9 cm x 3 cm must be inserted so that there
is no more than two meters between adjacent marks.
223
Emergency evacuation
If an emergency situation requires the evacuation of the
aeroplane, all persons on board must be able to exit the
airplane quickly and safely.
In other words, an aeroplane must enable the following:
 No emergency exit sills may be located at more than
1.83 meters (6 feet) above the ground or
 The aeroplane must be provided with equipment or
devices that enable passengers and crew to reach the
ground safely in an emergency. Such equipment or
device may be an emergency evacuation slide or chute.
This also applies to over-wing exits more than 1.83 meters
(6 feet) above the ground.
224
Requirements for Megaphones
 In order to communicate the evacuation of the aircraft to the

passengers in the event of the failure of the cabin loud speaker
system, an aeroplane must have a certain number of megaphones
available on board (readily accessible for use).
 The number of megaphones required depends on the maximum
approved passenger seating configuration of the airplane
 For aeroplanes with more than one passenger deck, in all cases
when the total seating configuration exceeds 60 passengers, at
least one megaphone is required.
225
Requirements for emergency lightings
 It is not only efficient communication that is important:

emergency lighting can also be a life-saver.
 If such a system is required, the emergency lighting

system must have an independent power supply to
facilitate the evacuation of the aeroplane.
226
Requirements for emergency lightings
227
Emergency locator transmitter(ELT)
228
Life jackets, life rafts, survival kits and ELTs
In the event that life jackets are required, such life jackets must be
available for each person on board and be equipped with a survivor
locator light.
Each life jacket must be stowed in a position easily accessible from the
seat or berth.
Life jackets are required on board an aeroplane in the following
situations:
• When flying over water and at a distance of more than 50 nautical
miles from the shore;
· When taking off or landing at an aerodrome where the take-off or
approach path is so disposed over water that there would be a
likelihood of a ditching in the event of a mishap;
Seaplanes and amphibians are always required to be equipped with life
jackets and a survivor locator light for each person on board.
229
Life jackets, life rafts, survival kits and ELTs
 Additional survival equipment is required on long-
distance flights as these flights are generally clearly
distant from areas where aerodromes or search and
rescue services are available.
 In addition to two emergency locator transmitters, the

following aircraft categories must provide a sufficient
number of life-rafts so as to accommodate persons
carried on board.
 In the event of a loss of one raft of the largest rated

capacity, all persons on board must be accommodated in
the remaining life-rafts.
230
Life jackets, life rafts, survival
kits and ELTs…cont’d
There must always be sufficient reserve capacity available.
The life rafts must be equipped with a survivor locator light

and life saving equipment including means of sustaining life
Aeroplane categories that must meet these requirements
include:
• Aeroplanes capable of continuing the flight to an
aerodrome with the critical power unit(s) becoming
inoperative at any point along the route or planned
diversions within 120 minutes at cruising speed or 400
NM, whichever is the lesser.
• For all other aeroplanes, this is 30 minutes at cruising
speed or 100 nautical miles, whichever is the lesser 231
Survival equipment requirements
232
Communication and navigation equipment
General requirements
A flight may only be conducted if all requirements are met with

regard to communication and navigation equipment.
 The equipment must be approved and installed in accordance

with the minimum performance standard and the operational
and airworthiness requirements.
 A smart phone, for example, is not permitted and will certainly

not meet the safety requirements laid down for a primary
navigation system. 233
 The operator must ensure that equipment is installed such that
the failure of any single unit required for either communication
or navigation purposes, or both, will not result in the failure of
another necessary unit.
 These systems must therefore be independently available.

For example, two VOR displays should be served by two
independent VOR receivers so that the second system can be
used in the event of failure of either one of the receivers.
 The equipment must be in an operable condition.
 The only exception is if the Minimum Equipment List

234
specifies otherwise.
 Equipment must be arranged and installed in such a manner

that if the equipment is to be used by one flight crew member
at his/her station during flight, it be readily operable from
his/her station. The installation of an HSI on the right side
when the instrument needs to be viewed by a pilot seated on
the left, is not permitted, except if the instrument is installed at
both pilot stations and can be readily viewed by both crew
members.
 Various minimum performance requirements for all
communications and navigation equipment are described
in the European Technical Standard Orders and must be
observed. 235
Radio equipment
 An aeroplane must of course always be provided with
radio equipment.
 The operation of the aircraft is otherwise not permitted .
 In addition, this radio equipment must enable radio

communications on the 121.5 MHz aeronautical
emergency frequency.
 The use of this emergency frequency is recommended,

although, in principle, an emergency message can be
transmitted on any other frequency.
236
Radio equipment…cont’d
 All necessary emergency measures can be initiated

over this emergency frequency.
 If two radios are available on board, it is also

recommended to switch the second device stand by on
frequency 121.5 MHz so that this enables the crew, in
extreme cases, to switch from the standby to the active
mode.
237
Audio selector panel
 An aeroplane is only permitted to operate under IFR
conditions if it is equipped with an Audio Selector Panel
and is available to all crew members during flight.
 If two pilots are required during IFR operations, which is

generally the case in commercial aviation, then the
Audio Selector Panel must be accessible to both pilots
and be arranged in a central position in the cockpit.
 If the device were only to be arranged on the left, for

use by the commander, the second pilot would be
unable to operate the device.
238
Radio equipment for VFR operation over routes
navigated by reference to visual landmarks
239
Communication and navigation equipment for
VFR operations not navigated by reference
to visual landmarks or under IFR
240
Equipment for operation in defined RVSM
airspace
If a flight is planned and operated in defined airspace with
reduced vertical separation minima ( RVSM), an operator must
ensure that the aeroplane is provided with additional
equipment and that this equipment is fully operative.
This equipment includes:
 Two independent altitude measurement systems;
 An altitude alerting system;
 An automatic altitude control system (autopilot);
 A Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transponder with
altitude reporting system that can be connected to the
altitude measurement system in use for altitude keeping.
241
Flight crew
Composition of flight crew
 The composition of the flight crew are dependent on the

type of operations performed.
 For example, long-distance flight operations require

additional crew on board and these crew members must
satisfy certain conditions.
242
Flight crew…cont’d
An operator must ensure that:
• The composition of the flight crew and the number of flight

crew members at designated crew stations are both in
compliance with, and no less than the minimum specified in
the aeroplane flight manual;
• The flight crew includes additional flight crew members

when required by the type of operation and as required by
the Operations Manual (for example, on long-distance
flights of a certain duration, more than two flight crew
members are required.
243
 All flight crew members must hold an applicable and
valid licence acceptable to the authority and must be
suitably qualified and competent to conduct the duties
assigned to them;
 Procedures must be established to prevent the crewing

together of inexperienced flight crew members;
 One pilot amongst the flight crew, qualified as a Pilot-In-

Command (PIC), must be designated as the commander
244
This is generally the case during long-haul operations
where additional operating flight crew are required (cruise
relief pilots).
245
246
Conversion Training and Checking
 An operator must observe certain criteria with regard to

conversion training.
 In principle, it must be ensured that each flight crew member
has first completed a type-rating training course before
making the transition to an aircraft of another type or class.
 In principle, a flight crew member must complete an

operator's conversion course before commencing
unsupervised line flying when:
• Changing operator;
• Changing to an aeroplane for which a new type or
class rating is required. 247
Conversion Training and Checking…
cont’d
 The extent of the training may vary and depends largely on the training and
experience already gained by the flight crew member, as well as his/her
qualifications.
 It is important that elements of CRM training are integrated into retraining

programs and the training should be completed before given assignment.
 This is generally as follows:

• Type rating and subsequent type-rating check;
• Special conversion training;
• Operator Proficiency Check;
• Emergency and Safety Equipment Training & Check;
• Line Training under Supervision;
• Line Check. 248
Differences training and familiarization training
In certain cases, additional type-rating training may not be
required.
The pilot may only require differences training
or familiarization training.
249
Upgrade from co- pilot to
commander
250
Minimum qualification requirements to
operate as a commander
Minimum requirements for commanders
For holders of a Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL), certain minimum
requirements must be met before joining as a commander
251
Requirement for recurrent training and checking
252
Types of Training and Checking
253
254
255
Requirement for a pilot to operate on
either pilot’s seat
 There are certain situations where a pilot is required to
conduct a flight in either pilot's seat.
 For example, an examiner conducting an upgrade check to
commander must also be able to operate and examine from
the right seat.
 Co-pilots who relieve the commander must be able to
operate both from the left and from the right pilot station.
 It is for this reason that pilots must meet certain requirements,
in particular with regard to their training.
 The training and checking program must be specified in the

Operations Manual and be acceptable to the authority.
256
Requirement for a pilot to operate on
either pilot’s seat
257
Minimum recent experience for a commander
and the co-pilot
OPS I specifies certain requirements regarding continuous flight
experience that determine time periods in which the number flights,
take-offs, approaches and landings must be made.
• Each pilot must have carried out three take-offs and three landings
in the previous 90 days as pilot flying in an aeroplane, or in a flight
simulator of the same type/class.
• A pilot who does not hold a valid instrument rating may not be
assigned to operate an aeroplane at night as commander unless he
has carried out at least one landing at night in the preceding 90 days
as pilot flying in an aeroplane, or in a flight simulator, of the same
type/class.
258
Route and aerodrome qualification required for
a commander or pilot flying
259
Requirement to operate on more than
one type or variant
 The use of a pilot on several aircraft types is not uncommon,
particularly in the case of freelance pilots. However, there are
restrictions imposed on the number of parallel licence types.
 This is to prevent pilot errors occurring as a result of too many
different procedures and systems.
 In extreme cases, an identical button or switch mounted in a
different aircraft type may have a completely different or opposite
function.
 In order to prevent mishaps, these parallel aircraft flight operations
should be restricted.
 The operator must at least ensure that the parallel training/parallel
rating is justified, and that these pilots have a certain minimum level
of experience, etc..
 These requirements must also be included in the operations manual 260
one type or variant
261
one type or variant
262
When the flight crew operates both
Helicopter and aeroplane …
Operation of aeroplanes and helicopters
 When a flight crew member operates both helicopters

and aeroplanes, an operator must ensure that operations
of helicopter and aeroplane are limited to one type of
each.
 In addition, the operator must specify appropriate

procedures and/or operational restrictions, approved by
the authority, in the Operations Manual
263
Training records
Of course all, records of all training, checking and qualifications
relating to operator conversions undertaken by a flight crew
member, as well as all other components such as;
• line training,
• line checks,
• command courses,
• recurrent training courses,
• pilot qualifications to operate in either pilot's seat and
knowledge and experience of flight routes aerodromes
etc..
must be preserved and made available, on request, to the
flight crew member concerned. 264
Cabin crew/ crew members other
than flight crew
 As is the case for the flight crew, requirements are also
prescribed for the training, checking and assignment of
the rest of the crew, such as flight attendants.
 Within the framework of OPS I, a flight attendant is any

crew member- with the exception of the flight crew -
assigned by the operator or the commander of an aircraft
to perform duties in the interest of the safety of
passengers.
 The primary task of a flight attendant therefore, is not to

serve coffee and food to the passengers, but to perform
duties that ensure the safety of passengers. 265
Cabin crew/ crew members other
than flight crew
 The operations manual contains all tasks and responsibilities required to
ensure the safety of passengers.
 An aeroplane with passenger seating configuration of more than 19 may

only be operated when at least one cabin crew member is included.
 This relates to the "emergency evacuation", The evacuation of the

aeroplane must first be demonstrated before an aeroplane type
certification can be issued.
 This demonstration must indicate the time required to evacuate the

aircraft and how many passengers can be evacuated.
 Now to the actual calculation. The number of cabin crew members

required is the greater of the following two values.
266
Cabin crew requirements
267
Acceptability criteria for cabin crew
To act a cabin crew member, certain minimum requirements

have to be fulfilled. They include:
 Minimum age of 18 years;
 Confirmation of medical fitness in regular intervals;
 Completion of basic training;
 Presentation of certificate for a safety training;
 Completion of an Operator Conversion;
 Mandatory participation in recurring trainings;
 Ability to perform his or her duties according to the
procedures as prescribed in the operations manual.
268
Requirements regarding senior cabin
crew members
Cabin crew member in command
If more than one cabin crew member is on board, one of them has to
be designated the cabin crew member in command.
This cabin crew member is responsible to the commander for the

execution and coordination of the normal and abnormal procedures
according to the flight manual.
This cabin crew member is also authorized to stop activities not

relevant to safety, if the safety of cabin crew members would be
compromised (e.g. strong turbulence), were no orders from the
commander to exist.
269
crew members
Additionally, a cabin crew member in command has to be able to
present certain experience:
• At least one year's experience as a cabin crew member;
• Completion of a training including the following:
 Pre-flight briefing;
• Operating as a crew;
• Allocation of cabin crew stations and responsibilities;
• Consideration of the particular flight, including aeroplane type,
equipment, area and type of operation, and categories of
passengers with particular attention to disabled, infants and
stretcher cases.
 Cooperation within the crew;
 Discipline, responsibilities and chain of command;
 importance of coordination and communication;
270
 Pilot incapacitation.
crew members
 Review of operator 's requirements and legal
requirements;
• Passenger safety briefing, safety cards;
• Securing of galleys;
• Stowage of cabin baggage;
• Electronic equipment;
• Procedures when fueling with passengers on board;
• Turbulence;
• Documentation.
 Regulations;
 Human factors and Crew Resource Management (CRM);
 Accident and incident reporting;
 Flight and duty time limitations and rest requirements.
271
Operation of different aircraft types
 Similar to the flight crew members, restrictions also exist for cabin crew
members regarding the operation on different types or production series.
 A cabin crew member may not act as such on more than three different
aircraft types. However, there exists the possibility to increase this number
to four, if the aviation authority permits this and if at least two of the types:
• Have identical non-type-specific normal and abnormal

procedures;
• Have similar safety equipment and type-specific normal and
abnormal procedures.
Aircraft are to be considered as different types (in terms of cabin crew member
duties), if the operation of their emergency exits is different, the storage and
type of portable safety equipment is different and type-specific emergency
procedures exist. 272
Manuals, logs and records
 As we have already learned from private aviation,
manuals, flight logs etc.. are worth their weight in gold.
 This also applies to professional and commercial

aviation.
 Manuals are the bibles for all crew members, log files
and other documentation ensure that the flight is
sufficiently planned and documented.
 In the era of "paperless cockpits", technology is gaining

more and more weight in this field. 273
General rules for operations manual
 As has already been mentioned, the operations manual is
extremely important for the flight crew.
 It contains all the instructions and information required by
operating personnel to perform their duties.
 The operator of an aircraft must therefore ensure that the manual
is readily accessible to the required operating personnel for
performing their duties.
 Before the operations manual becomes effective or if
amendments are made, it must be submitted to the authority for
approval.
 The form and content of the manual must ensure that it is easy to
use and is also understandable.
 It must therefore be ensured that procedures are not too
complicated to read and understand. 274
Structure and subject headings of the
operations manual
The document is basically divided into four parts:
Part A - General/basic;
• This part shall comprise all non type-related operational policies,
instructions and procedures needed for a safe operation.
• Contents:
 Administration and control of operations manual;
 Organization and responsibility;
 Operational control and surveillance;
 Quality system;
 Responsibility of crew members;
 Qualification requirements;
 Precautionary health measures for crew;
275
Contents…cont’d
 Limitations of flight times;
 Operational procedures;
 Dangerous goods and weapons;
 Flight safety;
 Measures for special incidents as well as notifying
and reporting;
 Air traffic control regulations;
 Ownership and leasing.
276
Structure and subject headings of
the operations manual
Part B - Aeroplane operating matters
OPS Regulations
• This part shall take account of any instructions or procedures required

for the safe operation of the aeroplane.
• Any differences between types, variants or individual aeroplanes used

by the operator must also be taken account of.
277
Contents on Part B
 General information and units of measure;
 Operational limits;
 Normal procedures;
 Special procedures and emergency procedures;
 Flight performance;
 Flight planning;
 Aircraft mass and balance;
 Payload;
 Configuration deviation list(s);
 Minimum equipment lists(s);
 Survival and emergency equipment, including oxygen;
 Emergency evacuation procedure;
 Aircraft systems
278
Structure and subject headings of
the operations manual
Part C - Route and aerodrome instructions and
information
• This part shall comprise all instructions and information

needed for the area of operation.
It must include all instructions relating to flight radio

communications, navigation and aerodromes, including
minimum flight levels and altitudes.
279
Part D – Training
• This part shall comprise all training instructions for

personnel required for a safe operation.
Contents:
 Training syllabus;
 Checking scheme;
 Procedures;
 Documentation to be preserved.
280
Journey logbook
 Journey logbook is required on all airplanes.
 The aeroplane journey log must include at least the
following entries:
• Aeroplane registration;
• Date;
• names of all crew members;
• Assignment of flight duties to crew members;
• Place of departure;
• Destination aerodrome;
• Departure time (block time);
• Arrival time (block time);
• Flight duration;
• Nature of the flight;
• Faults, defects and other observations;
• Signature of the commander or equivalent endorsement; 281
Operational flight plan
 The operational flight plan is one of the most important
documents to be created as part of the flight preparation
and to be used during the flight operation itself.
 The operational flight plan is mandatory and must be

present.
 There are no requirements regarding the manner in which

an operational flight plan is to be created.
 This can also be electronically, followed by the simple

printing out of the data in the form of an operational flight
plan. 282
Operational flight plan…cont’d
An operational flight plan must contain at least the following
information:
 Aeroplane registration;
 Aeroplane type and variant;
 Date of flight;
 Flight identification;
 Names of flight crew members;
 Duty assignment of flight crew members;
 Place of departure;
 Time of departure (actual off-block time, take-off time);
Place of arrival (planned and actual);
 Time of arrival (actual landing and on-block time);
283
 Type of operation (ETOPS, VFR, IFR);
 Route and route segments with checkpoints/waypoints,

distances, time and tracks;
 Planned cruising speed and flying times between check-

points/waypoints;
 Estimated and actual times overhead checkpoints/

waypoints;
 Safe altitudes and minimum levels;
 Planned altitudes and flight levels; 284

 Fuel calculations (records of in-flight fuel checks);
 Fuel on board when starting engines;
 Alternate(s) for destination and, where applicable, take-off

and en-route, including times (duration, arrival, waypoints,
course etc..);
 Initial ATS flight plan clearance and subsequent re-

clearance;
 In-flight re-planning calculations;
 Relevant meteorological information. 285

286
Document storage period
287
Document storage period
288
Flight and duty time limitations and rest
requirements
Augmented flight crew
• An “augmented flight crew" is a crew comprising more

than the minimum number required for the operation of
the aeroplane and in which each flight crew member can
leave his/her post and be relieved or replaced by another

appropriately qualified flight crew member.
Block time
• The time between an aeroplane first moving from its

parking place for the purpose of taking off and its coming
to rest on the designated parking position with all 289
Flight and duty time limitations and
rest requirements…cont’d
Break
A period free of all duties, which counts as duty, being less

than a rest period.
Duty
Any task that a crew member is required to carry out

associated with the business of an AOC holder. Except for
" here specific rules are provided by regulations, the authority
shall define whether and to what extent standby is
to be accounted for as duty.
290
requirements…cont’d
Duty period
A period that starts when a crew member is required by an

operator to commence a duty and ends when the crew
member is free from all duties.
Flight Duty Period
A Flight Duty Period (FDP) is any time during which a person

operates in an aircraft as a member of its crew.
The FDP starts when the crew member is required by an
operator to report for a flight or a series of flights; it finishes
at the end of the last flight on which he is an operating crew
member. 291
Home base
The location nominated by the operator to the crew member

from where the crew member normally commences and ends
a duty period or a series of duty periods and where, under
normal conditions, the operator is not responsible for the
accommodation of the crew member concerned.
Local day
A 24 hour period commencing at 00.00 local time.
Local night
A period of ten hours falling between 22.00 and 08.00 local
292
time.
A single day free of duty
 A single day free of duty shall include two local nights. A
rest period may be included as part of the day off.
Operating crew member
 A crew member who carries out his/her duties in an aircraft
during a flight or during any part of a flight.
Positioning
 This is the transferring of a non-operating crew member
from place to place, at the request of the operator,
excluding travelling time.
Travelling time is defined as:
• Time from home to a designated reporting place;
• Time for local transfer from a place of rest to the
commencement of duty and vice versa. 293
Flight and duty time limitations and
rest requirements…cont’d
Rest period
 An uninterrupted and defined period of time during which a crew

member is free from all duties and airport standby.
Standby
 A defined period of time during which a crew member is required by

the operator to be available to receive an assignment for a flight,
positioning or other duty without an intervening rest period.
Window Of Circadian Low – WOCL
 Time period between 2.00 hrs. and 5.59 hrs.. Within a band of three
time zones, the WOCL refers to home base time.
 Beyond these three time zones the WOCL refers to the first 48
294
hours after departure from the home base time zone, and to local
Flight and duty limitations
 Under OPS 1, crew members ( i.e. flight and cabin crew
alike) are subject to certain restrictions with respect to
flight duty times and block scheduling.
 The objective of these restrictions is ;

to ensure that crew members are not utilized excessively
in such a way as to jeopardies the safety of flight by

overloading the crew member on a given single duty.
295
Flight and duty limitations
Duty times <190 duty hours in any 28 consecutive days, spread as
evenly as practicable throughout this period, and;
.60 duty hours in any seven consecutive days.
Block times  900 block hours within each calendar year period;
 100 block hours within any period of 28 consecutive

days.
296
Maximum daily flight duty period
(FDP)
 The regulations regarding the maximum daily flight duty
period are complex and allow for both limitations and/or
reductions.
 The basic principle is that the rules, as listed below, do

not apply to medical emergencies.
 The maximum basic daily Flight Duty Period (FDP) is 13

hours.
297
Rest periods
 As already mentioned, a rest period is defined as an uninterrupted
and defined period of time during which a crew member is free from
all duties and airport standby.
Minimum rest periods
 Rest periods are split into two groups:
• Those rest periods that start at the home base and
• Those that start away from the home base.
 The minimum rest period before undertaking an FDP from the home
base (or whichever is greater) is: 12 hours, or; As long as the
preceding duty period.
 The minimum rest period before undertaking an FDP away from the
home base (or whichever is greater) is: 10 hours, or; As long as the
preceding duty period;
 Moreover, the operator must allow for an eight-hour sleep opportunity
taking due account of travelling and other physiological needs.
298
Extension of flight duty period due
to in-flight rest
 An FDP can be extended for both cabin and flight crew
members.
 However, this is subject to approval by the authority and
the operator must demonstrate to the authority that it can
ensure an equivalent level of safety.
 For the flight crew, this is only possible in connection with
the augmentation of a basic flight crew for the purpose of
extending the FDP.
 This is general practice on long-distance flights.
 For the cabin crew, a minimum in-flight rest period must be
established and ensured for the purpose of extending the
FDP. 299
The captain's discretion in case of
unforeseen circumstances
 The commander may, in the event of special circumstances, and after
consultation with the crew members affected, reduce the actual flight duty
time and/or increase the rest time.
Unforeseen circumstances in actual flight operations

 Any extensions of the FDP must be acceptable to the commander after
consultation with all other crew members and will normally be for a period
of no longer than two hours.
 If the flight crew has been augmented, the maximum flight duty period
may be increased by no more than three hours.
 If, on the final sector within an FDP, unforeseen circumstances occur after
take-off that may result in the permitted increase being exceeded, the
flight may continue to the planned destination or alternate aerodrome.
 The rest period following the FDP may be reduced but never below the
minimum specified rest period.
300
unforeseen circumstances …cont’d
Standby regulations
As already explained, standby is a defined period of time during which a crew
member is required by the operator to be available to receive an assignment for a
flight, positioning or other duty without a previous intervening rest period.
Here we distinguish between two basic forms of standby, each with their own
regulations.
Standby at airport
A crew member is on airport standby from the moment of reporting at the normal
report point until the end of the notified standby period.
This form of standby will count in full for the purposes of cumulative duty hours.
Where The airport standby does not lead to assignment on a flight duty, it must be
followed at least by a rest period as regulated by the authority.
While on airport standby, the operator is required to provide the crew member with a
quiet and comfortable place not open to the public. 301
unforeseen circumstances …cont’d
Other forms of standby (including standby at home and
at a hotel)
 All activity must be rostered and/or notified in advance in a

duty roster, which includes the start and end time of the
standby.
 In addition, the maximum length of any standby must also
be determined.
 OPS 1 does not regulate that this form of standby counts
as an FDP or that an additional rest period is required after
such a standby.
 OPS 1 only requires the operator to establish a scheme in
the operations manual for the purpose of rest periods and
that the facilities available for rest periods be observed302
.
Flight duty and rest period records
 Each crew member is required to maintain records of the
following information and the operator is required to
make such information available to each crew member:
• Block periods;
• Start, duration and end of each duty or flight duty

period;
• Rest periods and days free of all duties.
 These records must be preserved for 15 calendar months
from the date of the last relevant entry.
 If national regulations are applicable, then this period may

be extended if necessary. 303
Transport of dangerous goods by air
 Because dangerous goods, as the name suggests, are

dangerous, safety must be taken very seriously, especially
during transport.
 Special attention must be paid to loading, applicable forms

and any possible damage that may occur.
 OPS I specifies various criteria for the transport of

dangerous goods.
304
Transport of dangerous goods by air…
cont’d
Acceptance checklist
A document used to assist in carrying out a check on the external

appearance of packages of dangerous goods and their associated
documents to determine that all appropriate requirements have been met.
It is therefore a kind of checklist for the inspection of dangerous goods with
respect to the acceptance of cargo.
Cargo aircraft
This is any aircraft that is carrying goods or property but not passengers.
In this context the following are not considered to be passengers: a crew
member, an operator's employee permitted by, and carried in accordance
with , the instructions contained in the Operations Manual, an authorized
representative of an authority and persons with duties in respect of a
particular shipment on board.
305
Transport of dangerous goods by
air…cont’d
Acceptance checklist
 A document used to assist in carrying out a check on the

external appearance of packages of dangerous goods
and their associated documents to determine that all
appropriate requirements have been met.
 It is therefore a kind of checklist for the inspection of

dangerous goods with respect to the acceptance of
cargo.
306
cont’d
Cargo aircraft
This is any aircraft that is carrying goods or property but not passengers.
In this context the following are not considered to be passengers: a crew member,
an operator's employee permitted by, and carried in accordance with,
the instructions contained in the Operations Manual, an authorized representative
of an authority and persons with duties in respect of a particular shipment on board.
Dangerous goods
Articles or substances that are capable of posing a risk to health, safety, property or
the environment and that are shown in the list of dangerous goods in the Technical
Instructions or that are classified according to those Instructions.
307
cont’d
Dangerous goods accident
An occurrence associated with and related to the transport of dangerous goods

that results either in fatal or serious injury to a person or in major property
damage.
Dangerous goods incident
An occurrence, other than a dangerous goods accident, associated with and

related to the transport of dangerous goods, not necessarily occurring on board
an aircraft, which results in injury to a person, property damage, fire.
breakage, spillage, leakage of fluid or radiation or other evidence that the
integrity of the packaging has not been maintained.
Any occurrence relating to the transport of dangerous goods which seriously

jeopardizes the aircraft or its occupants is also deemed to constitute a dangerous
goods incident.
308
cont’d
Dangerous goods transport document
A document that is specified by the Technical Instructions. It is completed by the

person who offers dangerous goods for air transport and contains information
about those dangerous goods.
Freight container
A freight container is an article of transport equipment for radioactive materials,

designed to facilitate the transport of such materials, either packaged or
unpackaged, by one or more modes of transport.
This should not be confused with a unit load device where the dangerous goods
are not radioactive materials. This term will be explained in brief.
309
cont’d
Handling agent
An agency that performs on behalf of the operator some or all of the latter 's
functions including receiving, loading, unloading, transferring or other
processing of passengers or cargo.
Over pack
An enclosure used by a single shipper to contain one or more packages and

to form one handling unit for convenience of handling and stowage.
Note: a Unit Load Device (ULD) is not included in this definition.
Package
The complete product of the packing operation consisting of the packaging

and its contents prepared for transport.
310
cont’d
Serious injury
An injury that is sustained by a person in an accident and that:
• Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven

days from the date the injury was received, or;
• Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or
nose), or;
• Involves lacerations which cause severe hemorrhages, nerve, muscle or
tendon damage, or;
• Involves injury to any internal organ, or;
• Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5%
of the body surface, or;
• Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.
311
cont’d
Technical instructions
These are laid down in the latest approved edition of the "Technical Instructions" for
the Safe Transport of Dangerous goods by Air, including the supplements and any
addenda, approved and published by decision of the Council of the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO Doc. 9284-AN/905).
Unit Load Device (ULD)

Any type of aircraft container, aircraft pallet with a net, or aircraft pallet with a net
over an igloo. Two such ULDs are shown in the following pictures.
312
Scope of the regulations
Articles and substances that would otherwise be classed as dangerous

goods but which are not subject to the Technical Instructions in
accordance with OPS I.
For example, when placed on board an aeroplane for operational
purposes.
The detailed reasons for this are listed below:
• Goods required for the medical care of patients on board;
• Gas cylinders that must have been manufactured specifically for the
purpose of containing and transporting that particular gas;
• Medications and other medical matter that must be under the control
of trained personnel during the time when they are in use in the
aeroplane;
• Equipment containing wet cell batteries that must be kept and, when
necessary secured, in an upright position to prevent spillage of the
electrolyte; 313
Scope of the regulations
Goods required for the health of passengers and crew.

For example:
 Fire extinguishers;
 First-aid equipment;
 Flare guns.
• Goods required for operating purposes of the aeroplane,
such as those required for safety or for catering;
• Goods when they are baggage (carried by passengers or
crew members in accordance with the Technical
Instructions) - this includes only specific types of goods
and those which must generally be pre-registered with the
airline. 314
Limitations on transport of
dangerous goods
 In principle, an operator must ensure that articles and
substances or other goods declared as dangerous goods
that are specifically identified by name or generally described
in the Technical Instructions as being forbidden for transport
under any circumstances are not carried on any aeroplane.
 It must therefore be ensured that all staff and service providers
have a list of these goods and that they are able to recognize
such goods.
 Additionally, there are also articles and substances or other
goods declared as dangerous goods that are identified in the
Technical Instructions as being forbidden for transport in
normal circumstances.
315
Acceptance of dangerous goods
 Special caution must be taken when accepting dangerous goods.
 In general, it is the shipping agent who is responsible for ensuring

that all required documentation is present and that goods are
packaged in accordance with the requirements.
 Nevertheless, the operator must ensure that acceptance of the

packages, over packs and freight containers containing dangerous
goods is in accordance with the acceptance procedures in the
technical instructions and that all relevant details are checked (known
as the "acceptance check").
 For example, packages, over packs and freight containers must be

inspected for evidence of leakage or damage.
316
Acceptance of dangerous goods…cont’d
 Acceptance of the load would otherwise be refused.
 The details of the acceptance can be found in the applicable acceptance

list.
 Moreover, goods may only be accepted when these are "accompanied" by

two copies of a dangerous goods transport document.
 In addition, all package markings and labelling, as well as the dangerous

goods transport document, must be rendered in the English language.
 Other languages may be required in each country and these also need to
be considered.
317
Inspection for damage, leaks,
contaminations
In order to ensure that only articles and dangerous goods that are safely
and properly packaged are transported, the operator must ensure that ;
 Packages and containers are inspected for evidence of leakage or

damage immediately prior to loading. If this is the case, then such
consignments may not be transported.
 There are no signs of leakage of and damage to the dangerous goods

contained therein. If this is the case, then such consignments may not
be transported.
 Any package of dangerous goods found on an aeroplane and which

appears to be damaged or leaking must be removed or arrangements
made for its removal by an appropriate authority or organization.
318
Inspection for damage, leaks,
contaminations…cont’d
 In this case the remainder of the consignment must be inspected to

ensure it is in a proper condition for transport and that no damage or
contamination has occurred.
 Packages, over packs and freight containers must also be inspected

for signs of damage or leakage upon unloading from an aeroplane.
 If there is evidence of damage or leakage, the area where the

dangerous goods were stowed must be inspected for damage or
contamination.
319
Loading restrictions
There are also regulations for certain aircraft ranges and categories
with regard to the transportation of dangerous goods.
Passenger cabin and flight deck
Dangerous goods must not be transported in a cabin occupied by

passengers or in the cockpit, except when appropriate exemptions
from the dangerous goods regulations exist.
Cargo compartments
Dangerous goods must be loaded, segregated, stowed and secured on
an aeroplane. There are often even segregated cargo compartments
on some aircraft for the carriage of dangerous goods.
320
Loading restrictions …cont’d
Cargo plane and passenger aircraft
 Specific dangerous goods are labelled "Cargo Aircraft
Only". Packages and containers of dangerous goods
bearing this label must be carried exclusively by cargo
aircraft.
321
provision of information to the
commander
 In principle, the operator must ensure that written

information is provided to the commander about the
dangerous goods to be carried on an aeroplane.
 A legible copy of the written information to the

commander must also be preserved on the ground at a
readily accessible location.
322
provision of information to
the commander…cont’d
 In addition, the operator must ensure that this written
information is in the English language, or provided in
English in addition to any other language, if the flight
leaves the territory of a state.
 Further to this, the operator must ensure that

information is provided to the commander about the
actions to be taken in the event of emergencies
involving dangerous goods.
323
Dangerous goods incident and accident
report
 If an incident or accident actually occurs, the operator is

required to report this to the appropriate authority in the
state where the accident or incident occurred.
 The first report must be dispatched in an appropriate

manner (e.g. by e-mail, fax, telephone) within 72 hours
of the event unless exceptional circumstances prevent
this.
324
report …cont’d
 The first report of such an incident or accident must

include the details that are known at that time.
 A follow-up report with additional details shall be

prepared, if information becomes available that was not
available at the time of the first report.
 If a report has been made verbally, written confirmation

must be sent as soon as possible.
325
Dangerous goods incident and
accident report…cont’d
The first report and any subsequent report must be as precise as possible
and contain such of the following data as are relevant to the incident:
• Date of the incident or accident or the finding of undeclared or miss-
declared dangerous goods;
• Location, the flight number and flight date;
• Description of the goods and the reference number of the air waybill,
pouch, baggage tag, ticket, etc..;
• Proper shipping name (including the technical name, if appropriate)
and UN/ID number, when known;
• Class or division and any subsidiary risks;
• Type of packaging, and the packaging specification marking on it;
326
report…cont’d
• Quantity;
• Name and address of the shipper, passenger, etc..;
• Any other relevant details;
• Suspected cause of the incident or accident;
• Measures taken;
• Any other reporting action taken;
• Name, title, address and telephone number of the person
making the report;

• Copies of relevant documents and any photographs
taken should be attached to a report.
327
Long range flights
 In the case of long-distance flights, issues like pre-flight
preparation, in-flight management procedures, etc.. are
much more significant than for short-haul flights because
considerably more planning and procedures are required.
 Here, a distinction is drawn between the areas of flight

management, transoceanic and polar route flights and
MNPS and ETOPS, as these are the key areas of
difference in comparison to short-haul flights.
328
Flight management
 As is the case with short-haul flight operations, during
long-haul flights, the operator must ensure that
operations are conducted only on routes and in areas
where certain requirements can be met and in cases
where restrictions are imposed on certain routes and
areas of operation.
 These may include, for example, temporary closures.

Especially for long-haul flights across the Atlantic, for
example, there are certain time constraints as to when a
flight should be undertaken along a certain route
329
Flight management…cont’d
For pre-flight preparation, it is important to understand these
limitations and to take them into account.
The conditions for following a specific route or for flying in a

certain area of operation are:
• The availability of ground-based equipment, ground services

and weather services.
These must also be adequate for the planned flight operation.

Examples are ground-based radio stations or radar installations.
• Minimum altitudes must be observed and the aeroplane and

specific flight performance/characteristics satisfied. 330
Flight management…cont’d
The equipment of the aeroplane intended to be used must
meet the minimum requirements for the planned flight
operation.
Examples of this are RNAV equipment for RNAV routes or
areas of operation.
• An operator must also ensure that appropriate maps and
charts are available.
• If twin-engine aircraft are used under ETOPS conditions
in the relevant area, a suitable alternate aerodrome must
be available.
• If a flight in RVSM airspace is planned, these factors must
also be considered when selecting the relevant flight levels.
331
Selection of a route
An adequate aerodrome is an aerodrome that the operator
considers to be satisfactory to use in respect of various
characteristics.
These characteristics include ;
• availability/opening in the time period required,
• runway characteristics (length, etc..) and
• available ancillary services (ATC, ATS, lighting, CAT
II/III, etc..) with respect to the type of use and operation,
and
• the associated performance requirements.
332
Selection of a route…cont’d
For aeroplanes without an ETOPS approval.
certain rules apply with regard to the maximum allowable

distance from an adequate (or alternate) aerodrome.
The exact values depend on;

• the aeroplane performance class,
• the maximum take-off mass and
• other factors which are defined in appropriate
manual.
333
Selection of a route with and with
out ETOPS approval
Performance Maximum Maximum take-off Maximum distance
class operational mass (One engine
passenger inoperative , under
seating standard condition)
configuration
A 20 or more 45,360 kg or more 60 minutes
A 19 or less less than 45,360 kg 120 minutes

or
180 minutes for turbo-
jet
aircraft (subject to
approval
by the competent
authority)
B and C - - 120 minutes or 300
NM
(whichever is less)
334
Selection of a route with and with
out ETOPS approval.
335
Selecting a cruising altitude
• When selecting flight levels within the framework of flight planning, there
are several issues to consider.
• A distinction must first be made as to where and how the flight is to be
conducted.
• Before this is explained, a short explanation of the term "Organized
Track System" (OTS) is required.
• For flight operations above the Atlantic, there is a system that specifies
predefined routes for crossing the Atlantic.
• These routes are established on a daily basis and depend on the

weather and other operational conditions.
• This system enables pilots, for example, to view which routes are
available for crossing the Atlantic from Europe to America or vice versa.
• These routes then specify inter alia the entry point, the various
waypoints and the flight levels to be used. 336
337
338
Selection of alternate aerodrome
 Take-off alternate
• The take-off alternate comes into effect as soon as a landing is
required more or less immediately after take-off and if a landing on
the departure runway is no longer possible.
• This is especially the case if technical problems occur after take-off

that require the aircraft to land. The landing may not be possible,
because, for example, weather minima cannot be complied with
(higher minima apply when flying with one engine inoperative).
• For twin-engine aircraft, the take-off alternate must be located so

that it can be reached within an hour's flight time with one engine
inoperative.
• For twin-engine aeroplanes with ETOPS approval, the take-off
alternate must be located within the ETOPS approved distance for
the take-off alternate, which is a maximum of two hours flight time
339
Multi-engine aeroplanes with one engine inoperative must be

able to reach the alternate within a flight time of two hours.
 These values apply under the assumption that the requirements

for airspeed according to the flight manual for engine failure or the
speed for maximum continuous power on the remaining engine,
wind, standard conditions and the actual take-off mass are met.
 An operator may only select an aerodrome as a take-off alternate

aerodrome when the appropriate weather reports or forecasts or
any combination thereof indicate that, during a period commencing
one hour before and ending one hour after the estimated time of
arrival at the aerodrome, the weather conditions will be at or above
the applicable aerodrome operating minima.
340
Destination alternate
 An operator must select at least one destination alternate

for each IFR flight unless:
• The flight duration is less than or equal to six
hours, or
• Two separate runways are available and usable at
the destination aerodrome.
• The destination aerodrome is isolated
 In certain cases, the operator is required to select two

destination alternates.
341
Destination alternate…cont’d
A destination alternate aerodrome may only be planned as such if the
weather forecasts for the period +/- 1 hour with respect to the expected
time of arrival satisfy the following planning minima:
Category of Planning minima

approach
CAT II & CAT Ill CAT II & CAT Ill
CAT I Non-precision landing (runway visual
range + lower cloud base
at/above MDH - minimum descent height)
Non-precision landing Non-precision landing + 200ft
Circle-to-land Circling approach/circle-to-land
342
En-route alternate
An en-route alternate aerodrome may only be planned as such if the
weather forecasts for the period +/- 1 hour with respect to the expected
time of arrival satisfy the following planning minima:
Category of approach Planning minima

CAT II & CAT Ill CAT I (Runway visual range)
CAT I Non-precision landing (runway visual
range + lower cloud base at/
above MDH - minimum descent
height)
Non-precision landing Non-precision landing + 200ft
Circle-to-land Circling approach/circle-to-land
343
ETOPS en-route alternate
An ETOPS en-route alternate aerodrome may only be planned as

such if the weather forecasts for the period +/- 1 hour with respect to
the expected time of arrival satisfy the following planning minima:
Category of RVR/Visibility Cloud base

approach (ceiling)
Precision approach Permissible visibility Permissible DH/DA
level +800m + 200ft
Non-precision Permissible visibility Permissible MDH I
approach or level +1,500m MDA
circling approach + 400ft
(Circle-To Land)
344
Minimum time routes
 As the name implies, the primary purpose of these routes
is to provide a Minimum Time Route (MTR) or minimum
time track between two points with regard to flight time.
 If winds are left out of the equation, then the aeroplane
flies a great circle. If any head winds or tail winds impact
on the flight, these conditions change.
 If this is the case, then calculations must take account of
prevailing wind and weather conditions and, of course, any
restrictions imposed by air traffic control.
 The route that results from the shortest flight time from A to
B is the minimum time route.
345
Transoceanic and polar flight
 The operation of aircraft near the poles presents pilots,

operators and other interested parties with entirely new
challenges.
 Generally, flights conducted within 70° N are designated as

polar navigation flight operations.
346
Special features relating to polar
flights
The closer an aeroplane comes to the polar region, the
greater the influence of the inclination of a magnetic compass
needle will be.
The needle of the magnetic compass is therefore no longer

horizontal but aligns itself to the local geomagnetic field and
downwards.
Therefore, the information that a magnetic compass

provides in such areas is no longer reliable.
For the same reason VOR stations in areas where the

magnetic compass is unreliable are not referenced to 347
Magnetic North, but to True North.
Possible indication of navigation System
degradation
Use of a directional gyro
 A gyro (or, more technically, a directional gyro) is also
subjected to various errors.
 The directional gyro retains the course reference for long
periods of time and must therefore be
re-adjusted/corrected using the compass.
 If the compass is not working reliably, there can be no
reliable re-adjustment or correction.
 One reason for the problems in gyros is that the gyro
maintains its position in space. Whether we move or
remain in one place, the Earth turns and the gyro retains its
initial position relative to space.
 This phenomenon is known as "Earth-Rate Error" or 348
"astronomical precession".
Use of a directional gyro…cont’d
 The error can be calculated with a formula.

Earth rate = 15 x sin (width)
 The result is a number of degrees per hour, thus indicating how
many degrees per hour the gyro indicator deviates.
 This can be corrected by using an adjustment screw on the gyro.
 The correction mechanism generates a counter error , so to

speak, and compensates for the Earth Rate.
 However, this only works for a fixed latitude as the Earth Rate
depends on the latitude, as can be seen in the formula.
 Another reason for gyro errors are the movement of the aircraft
in an easterly or westerly direction - this is the “ transport wander
349
or "precession" .
 All gyros are initially aligned with the True North.
 If the aeroplane then travels from west to east, then the

gyro , which is not on the equator, loses its alignment
because the gyro is stable in space.
 Depending on the direction of movement of these errors,

the "Earth rate" is either added or subtracted.
 Transport Wander = (Ground Speed East/West x tan

(latitude))/60
350
 Moreover, a gyro is a mechanical device that can give
faulty readings, for example, as a result of friction.
 This results in additional errors or the "random wander"

or "real wander".
 It is not generally a requirement to be able to calculate

real wander.
 In conclusion, this results in the total variance of a gyro:
Earth rate + transport wander + real wander + latitude

counter-error
351
The individual error values have opposite symbols, depending on the

northern or southern hemisphere, and are therefore not always added
or subtracted.
The following table shows the applicable symbols.

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere
Rotation of the Earth I - +

Earth rate
Counter-errors derived + -
from latitude correction
Transport wander in - +
easterly direction
Transport wander in + -
352
westerly direction
Example: A gyro without real wander is aligned and corrected to a

latitude of 60 degrees North. The aeroplane flies for 90 minutes on a
course of270 degrees along the latitude of 50 degrees North. This TAS
is 300 knots with a wind of 090/60. Calculate the total variance at the
end of the flight.
 Calculation of error correction for 60 degrees north:

 Calculation of transport wander:
 Calculation of earth rotation error:
 Calculation of the total flight time
 Calculate the total variance at the end of the flight.
.
353
1. Calculation of error correction for 60 degrees north:
 15 x sin ( 60) = 12.99 degrees deviation per hour
2. Calculation of transport wander:
• For this purpose, we must first calculate the ground speed.
This is determined from the TAS and the given wind of 360 knots.
• 360/60 x tan (50) = 7.15 degree deviation per hour
3. Calculation of earth rotation error:
• 15 x sin (50) = 11 .49 degrees deviation per hour
4. Calculation of the total flight time
• 1.5 hours
5. Applying the table above, we reach the following total deviation of:
• 12.99 + 7. 15 to 11.49 = 8.65 degrees per hour
6. This is multiplied by 1.5 as we are not flying for one hour but for 1.5
hours.
The result is: 12.975 degrees and about 13 degrees deviation after
completion of the flight.
354
Polar grid navigation
 If we take both True North and Magnetic North away from

the equation, define a new North and then align a stable
gyro to this North, we have a reliable course reference.
 This eliminates the problem of transport wander in the gyro

- although we must still consider the remaining errors such
as Earth Rate and real wander.
 In order to define this new North we place a grid on the

Arctic map and define a specific point as Grid North.
355
Polar grid navigation…cont’d
356
 In the image, the grid is aligned with the Greenwich
meridian and placed over a polar stereographic map.
 A polar stereographic map is basically no more than a

plan view of the pole.
 One can now see quite clearly that although the true or
magnetic track changes continuously during the flight,
the grid track remains constant in relation to the grid
North.
357
358
359
 The difference between Grid North and True North is
called "convergence" (or "convergency").
 Polar stereographic charts always relate to the chart

convergence between the Grid North Meridian
(Greenwich, in this case, i.e. 0°) and the point at which
the aeroplane is currently located.
 From this knowledge, and with the assistance

of the flight path chart (course chart), we can
now perform arbitrary computations of the grid,
true magnetic or magnetic courses
360
Now we turn to the additional flight path chart and then reach the calculation:
I . Determining grid convergency. This is the difference between 0950W and
the Greenwich Meridian, i.e. 095 degrees. West or East? Since Grid North,
starting from the current position, is located to the east, this is 095 degrees
East.
2. Use of relevant symbols and signs

• We calculate TN based on GN Based on the flight path chart; we use the
path downwards, which is generally designated by the "minus" sign.
• Since the grid convergency is east and we are located in the northern
hemisphere, we use the "plus" sign for the grid convergency.
3. Calculation of TN:
• TN = GT - Grid convergency
• TN = 040 - (+) 095 = 040- 095 = 305 degrees (minus times plus equals
minus)
361
Inertial navigation
 Nowadays, an Inertial Navigation System (INS) or Inertial

Reference System (IRS) is used for long-distance flight
operations, as well as for other flight operations.
 Although an INS also uses a gyro, problems like transport

wander etc.. do not occur.
 From an operational point of view, the following should be

noted:
362
Inertial navigation…cont’d
Use of To note
Simple INS If only an INS system is used, a further long-range navigation system
such as GPS, Doppler, etc.. must be added.
The two systems are both operated independently of each other and
the pilots need to check any errors manually.
Dual INS The two INS units are used and operated independently. The pilots
must check the positional data of both systems at each of the
waypoints. If these differ, the flight crew must check which
of the two systems is providing incorrect information. Ideally, this
should also be supported by other means of navigation, such as VOR
or NDB.
Triple INS A triple INS system is typically used together with the FMS and
controlled accordingly. The routes in the FMS must be updated every
363
28 days.
MNPS Airspace
 MNPS.= "Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications“
 There may be specific areas, both horizontally and vertically.
 Certain specified navigation performance requirements are

required.
 If an operator wishes to operate in such an area (for

example, over the North Atlantic) the aeroplane must be
adequately equipped and properly certified.
 If this leads to the requirement of specific procedures, this

must be specified in the operations manual. 364
Limits of MNPS airspace
The area to the north of the Canary Islands,
i.e. from 27°N northwards to the North Pole

between FL285 and FL420,
is designated as MNPS airspace.
365
Geographical extension of the
MNPS airspace
366
MNPS Airspace…cont’d
Aeroplanes that operate in this area must meet certain standards

in terms of ;
 both navigation aids and equipment.
 flight crew and the procedures required.
The operator must ensure that appropriate procedures

are in place that ensure that the crews follow the NAT
MNPSA procedures in accordance with ICAO Doc
7030 NATIRAC.
367
MNPS(Minimum Navigation Performance Specification).
A specification relating to the procedures and requirements for

navigational aids, crew training and flight procedures.
MNPSA(Minimum Navigation Performance Specification

Airspace.)
An airspace in which MNPS is used and in which certain

procedures need to be followed.
368
OCA(Oceanic Control Area).
This is an ATCS that covers a certain area of NAT-airspace and

issues approvals for flights through that airspace.
OTS( Organized Track System).

A system for daily control of routes in certain flight regions such as
the North Atlantic.
PRM(Preferred Route Message).

Operators have the ability and are even encouraged to submit their
scheduled flights to the OTS authority in advance. (including a
preferred route for each flight.) 369
RVSM(Reduced Vertical Separation Minima).

An airspace (usually vertical) with reduced vertical separation.
LRNS(Long-Range Navigation System).

A system used for long-distance navigation.
MASPs(Minimum Aircraft Systems Performance Specification).

Like MNPS, MASPs are also subject to certain aircraft systems and
performance requirements.
370
SLOP(Strategic Lateral Offset Procedures.)
This is a special procedure that allows aeroplanes to fly a more or

less randomly pre-determined route offset from the actual route.
WATRS(West Atlantic Route System.)

Similar to the NAT (North Atlantic Track), this is a route system
that is specially tailored towards the very busy areas of the U.S.
east coast, i.e. western Atlantic.
371
System requirements
In order to operate in the area, certain requirements must be met.
If this is not possible, a holding may still be possible under certain

conditions.
In principle, the aircraft must be equipped as follows:
• Two fully functioning and independent primary altimeters;
• An automatic altitude hold system;
• An altitude alert system;
• An operational mode C secondary transponder if the flight is
to be conducted in a radar-controlled area. (Not all areas over
the Atlantic are radar-controlled).
372
System requirements
In addition, the following requirements must be met:
Unrestricted operation-
 Two fully functional long range navigation systems(LRNS).
 These may be-INS,IRS/FMS or GPS.
 Each of these systems must provide the flight crew with a

continuous indication of relative position for the route concerned.
373
System requirements…cont’d
Air craft without two LRN systems-
 For this purpose ,special routes , known as Blue Spruce Routes

are available.
 For a/c which has only one LRNS in addition to standard short
range navigation.
 There are also G3,G11 routes are available for a/c equipped with
VOR,DME and ADF.
Aircraft that are not MNPS approved
 Only climb and descents are authorized in this airspace.
374
 Direct pilot controller communication is required.
Organized track system(OTS)
The NAT OTS is a system that determines fixed pre-determined
Routes Daily.
 1400UTC for flight to the east.

 2200UTC for flight to the west.
The objective of the system is to regulate and group air traffic

during pick hours.
The release of notification is made on daily bases to reflect the

prevailing winds and jet streams.
375
Organized track system(OTS)…
cont’d
Each of the routes are identified by letters
 The western routes start with Letter A,B,C,D….

 The eastern routes start with Letter Z,Y,X,W…
NAT OTS is performed twice with in a 24-hour period.
 The western system from 11:30UTC to 19:00 UTC.

 The eastern system from 01:00UTC to 08:00UTC.
The indicated time refer to the times at which the flight

passes over the Meridian at 0300 W. 376
(Boundary b/n GANDER and SHANWICK)
cont’d
The routes are announced in the form of "OTS track messages".
the messages are issued
 For eastern flights daily at 14:00 UTC, and
 at around 22:00 UTC for flights travelling to the west.

 For east FLT- FL310,320,330,340,350,360 and 390
no west flight clearance at this time.
377
cont’d
Between the periods of westbound and eastbound air traffic
there is a period in which neither one nor the other system is
active.
 between 08:0 I UTC and II :29 UTC, and

 between 19:0 I UTC and 00:59 UTC.
These periods are called "Changeover Periods".
378
Other routes and structures
In addition to the OTS there are also several other route systems
in the NAT MNPS airspace.
North American routes
A series of pre-defined routes which connect the NAT

Oceanic Routes with North American national airspace and
then connect to the North American airports.
Canadian domestic track systems
There are three route systems within Canada . All three

systems connect to the NAT air traffic travelling between.
Europe and North America. 379
Other routes and structures…cont’d
Routes between North America and the Caribbean region
This is an extensive route network connecting North America

(U.S. and Canada) with Bermuda, the Bahamas and the rest of
the Caribbean.
In principle, all flights are scheduled to fly on these great

circles and fly over each of the successive waypoints.
380
Flight planning
Operators who plan their flights during the validity of the OTS
hours must execute those plans based on three basic principles.
OTS route The route must be planned entirely along the approved
OTS route.
Partial OTS route The route is partly planned along the OTS approved
routes, but it can fly to certain waypoints points on this
route, and then leave from other waypoints again.
No OTS route It is also possible to plan flights without the use of OTS
tracks.
Although such routes will not normally be rejected, it
may well be the case that certain flight levels cannot be
assigned or that the flight is not economical if those
flight levels lie below the NAT tracks.
It is even possible to schedule a flight that crosses an
OTS track without actually using that track. 381
Flight planning …cont’d
Flights outside an OTS period are planned as normal long-

distance flights and the flight levels are selected according to
the direction the flight takes and the currently applicable
RVSM restrictions.
382
ATC Oceanic Clearance
 Ideally, the commander must have this clearance no later than 40

minutes before the planned ETA at the entry fix of the track.
 This is not a fixed requirement because, for practical reasons,

this cannot always be visualised.
 There should always be two flight crew members listening to a

clearance notification or to a change in clearance data and this
data should be verified by both crew members in order to ensure
that the clearance instructions have been properly understood.
383
ATC Oceanic Clearance…cont’d
 If the clearance is identical to the planned route, this should

be marked on the "plotting chart".
 If the clearance deviates from the planned route, a new

master document must be prepared.
384
Application of Mach number technique
Because there is very little radar coverage over the North

Atlantic and a minimum separation of 10minutes is required
between two aeroplanes, the "Mach Number Separation
Procedure" has been introduced.
ATC indirectly controls separation based upon the assigned

Mach number.
385
MNPS flight operation &
navigation procedures
Pre-flight procedures
 The separation in these areas of operation is based on time

intervals and the planes must report to ATC when passing over
certain waypoints.
 Reports are based on times, the timepieces onboard the

aeroplane must be both exact and free from errors.
 UTC time check and synchronization of the master clock is a

fundamental part of the pre-flight procedure. 386
navigation procedures…
Master Document
cont’d
 An operator is required to establish and use a master
document.
 This master document forms the basic document for use in

the cockpit.
 It may be based on data from the flight plan and/or

navigation log, and must list all of the waypoints in the
correct order , as well as the appropriate courses, distances
and times and any other relevant information for navigation
along the planned route.
387
cont’d
IRS/INS Alignment
• The INS/ IRS system must be properly initialised before

commencement of the flight.
• The precise aircraft position must be entered as part of the

initialisation process.
388
cont’d
Assessment of predicted satellite availability
A "satellite navigation prediction system" must be used.
This system must be used during pre-flight preparation

to determine whether fewer than three GPS satellites will
be available along the planned route for any given period
and,
whether the RAIM functionality will be available along

the entire route to be flown. 389
cont’d
Loading initial waypoints
The flight crew must apply a specific procedure when entering

the initial waypoints:
• A pilot must enter the data for a waypoint into the FMS (Flight
Management System).
• The other pilot must then repeat the information entered and
confirm that this data is correct according to the source (flight
plan).
390
cont’d
Flight plan check
 The purpose of this review is to conduct a cross-check

between the master document and the data generated
by the aircraft systems for navigation.
 All relevant information, in particular distances , times,

and waypoints, can be adjusted during this crosscheck
procedure.
391
MNPS flight operation & navigation
procedures…cont’d
Entering MNPS airspace
• The accuracy and functionality of the long-range navigation

systems must be checked prior to entering the airspace.
• The most accurate of on-board systems should be used for
the automatic control.
• If three pilots are on board, the third pilot must also verify
before commencement of the flight whether the clearance is
correct based on the waypoints in the FMS.
• If a malfunction of the RF communication system is
determined prior to entry in to airspace, the commander is
advised not to commence entry into the NAT/MNPS airspace. 392
Reaching a waypoint
• Before reaching the waypoint, the current position of each

navigation system must be checked and verified against
the approved route in the master document.
• The following two waypoints in the navigation system must

be checked against the next two waypoints in the master
document.
393
Reaching a waypoint…cont’d
 The distance to the next waypoint is determined when
passing over each individual waypoint.
 This also applies to the direction in which the aircraft is

to fly the next waypoint.
 The coordinates of the current aircraft position must

then be checked against the master document again
before transmitting the position report to ATC.
394
Flight monitoring
• Verification of whether the autopilot is active and functioning

properly.
• Verification that the navigation system, which is connected to

the autopilot, indicates the current and correct coordinates.
• Verification of the aircraft's position at each waypoint.
395
Flight monitoring…cont’d
• Verification of the aircraft's position 10 minutes after
leaving each waypoint.
• Assessment of winds and wind speeds along the

planned flight route.
• The navigation system that is not used for the autopilot

should display "crosstrack" distances and any "track
angle errors". 396
RVSM in MNPS
 If the aircraft is to be operated in an RVSM airspace,
certain procedures must be observed during the flight.
Altimeter check prior to entry into the RVSM

airspace
 The altimeters on board the aeroplane must be checked

before entering the RVSM airspace.
 At least two primary altimeters on board must produce
the same reading within a range of +/-200ft.
397
RVSM in MNPS…cont’d
Altimeter check during flights in RVSM airspace
If at any point of the flight the indications of the primary

altimeters deviate by more than 200ft from each other, this
must be regarded as a technical fault and be reported to ATC
immediately.
398
RVSM in MNPS…cont’d
ATC reports in view of flight level deviations
 Pilots must report to ATC immediately on leaving one flight

level and continuing the flight at a new flight level.
Altitude deviation reports

 Any deviations from the prescribed flight level in excess of
300ft must be reported immediately to air traffic control.
399
Navigation system degradation
or failure
 There are also procedures to be followed in the event that
not all systems run so smoothly.
 These relate in particular to the procedures applicable in

the event of a failure of the navigation systems.
 First, we assume that up to the time of observation the

aeroplane has two properly functioning long range
navigation systems.
400
LRNS fails before take-off
• Postpone the take-off until the system can be repaired;
• Request clearance above or below the restricted airspace;
• Plan the route to one of the specific routes, e.g. one

of the Blue Spruce Routes.
401
An LRNS fails prior to entry into the
Oceanic airspace
• Return to a suitable aerodrome and land before

space reaching the airspace boundary or return to the
departure aerodrome;
• Divert to one of the special notified routes;
• Request clearance for a flight level above or below

the airspace concerned.
402
The remaining LRNS failed after
entering the MNPS airspace. •
 Use the basic IRS and/or GPS readings to maintain the

correct course and to calculate the ETAs;
 The approved route must be recorded on a chart.
 The position of the aeroplane must be recorded at

intervals of 15 minutes on the chart and, if necessary,
the course should be adjusted accordingly:
 Of course, ATC must also be informed.
403
Special procedures for in-flight
contingencies
Ideally, if an incident or emergency occurs during flight
rendering it impossible for the aeroplane to continue
flight along the ATC clearance route,
a revised clearance should be issued by ATC
before any attempt is made to change the course, flight

altitude etc.
404
contingencies…cont’d
In-flight contingency procedures are to be applied until a revised
clearance issued by ATC.
This procedure establishes the following:
• Fly a lateral deviation of 15 NM;
• Climb or descend to 500ft below FL41 0;
• Climb or descend to 1,000ft above FL410.
405
contingencies…cont’d
If severe weather situations require a deviation from the assigned
route, the following should be noted:
• A change in the ATC clearance should be requested;
• If a revised ATC clearance is not immediately possible (and

only in this case), this should be addressed as follows:
• If possible, depart completely from the OTS (Organized Track

System);
• Communicate with aircraft in the vicinity;
• Look out for further traffic in order to avoid collisions and verify
the ACAS/TCAS;
• Switch on all aircraft lights; 406
Special procedures for in-
flight contingencies…cont’d
• In the case of lateral deviations smaller than 10NM, the
aircraft can remain at the assigned flight level;
• If the lateral deviation is more than 10NM, then the
flight level must be revised as follows:
• In easterly directions and
lateral deviations to the left, ……..descend 300ft.
• In easterly directions and
lateral deviations to the right, ……climb 300ft.
• In westerly direction and
lateral deviations to the left, ……..climb 300ft.
• In westerly direction and
lateral deviations to the right, …….descend 300ft.
407
ETOPS
 ETOPS is an acronym for Extended Twin-Engine Operations.
 Under the assumed normal conditions for twin engine

Aeroplanes , it would not be possible under these
conditions to conduct long-distance flights because the
required alternate aerodromes would be too far away.
 It was therefore decided to introduce a licensing and

certification process called ETOPS.
408
ETOPS…cont’d
an operator can obtain approval for the operation of a twin-engine
aeroplane in accordance with ETOPS specifications.
There are different levels of operator certifications.
In principle, an operator must first be ETOPS-1 certified. If

this can be successfully verified, then a ETOPS-2
certification, etc.. can be issued.
The higher the ETOPS category, the greater the allowable

diversion times (distances) from alternate aerodromes etc..
The procedure for an ETOPS approval is still operator-

specific, and thus part of the AOC. 409
Operations Manual
The operations manual is the alpha and omega both for crew
members and for other personnel.
It contains all the instructions and information required by

operating personnel to perform their duties.
The operator of an aircraft is required to ensure that the

manual is readily accessible to the required operating
personnel.
The operations manual should include at least those parts

containing all instructions and information necessary for
operating personnel to perform their duties. 410
Operations Manual…cont’d
In principle, the operations manual is divided into four
parts .
Part A
Part B
Part C
Part D.
411
Operations manual part A
Part A consists of all non type-related operational policies,
instructions and procedures necessary to ensure safe flight
operations. These include:
• Administration and control of operations manual;
• Organization and responsibility;
• Operational control and surveillance;
• Quality system;
• Responsibility of crew members;
• Qualification requirements;
• Precautionary health measures for crew;
412
Operations manual part A…
cont’d
• Limitations of flight times;
• Operational procedures;
• Dangerous goods and weapons;
• Flight safety;
• Measures for special incidents, as well as notification
and reporting procedures;
• Air traffic control regulations;
• Ownership and leasing.
413
Content of part A
In addition to the above-mentioned areas, part A also includes

several general (not type-related) operational procedures.
These include:
 De-icing and anti-icing on the ground ;
• The operations manual contains a description of the de-icing and anti-icing
policy and procedures for aeroplanes on the ground.
 These procedures include descriptions of the types and effects of icing

and other contaminants on aeroplanes whilst stationary, during ground
movements and during take-off.
 In addition, a description of the fluid types used must be given,

including proprietary or commercial names, characteristics, effects on
aeroplane performance, hold-over times and precautions during usage.
414
Content of part A…cont’d
 Adverse and potentially hazardous atmospheric conditions;

• These include procedures for operating in, and/or
avoiding adverse and potentially hazardous atmospheric
conditions, including:
• Thunderstorms;
• Icing conditions;
• Turbulence;
 Wind shear;
• Jet stream;
• Volcanic ash clouds;
• Heavy precipitation;
 Sand storms;
• Mountain waves; 415
• Significant temperature inversions;

• Wake turbulence;
 Wake turbulence separation criteria, taking into account
aeroplane types, wind conditions and runway locations;
• Incapacitation of crew members;

• Procedures to be followed in the event of the incapacitation of
crew members in flight.
 Examples of the types of incapacitation and the means for

recognizing them must also be included.
416
• Use of the Minimum Equipment List (MEL) and

Configuration Deviation List(s) (CDL).
• Flight safety
• Security instructions and guidance of a non-confidential
nature which must include the authorities
and responsibilities of operations personnel. Policies and
procedures for handling and reporting unlawful
events on board, such as unlawful interferences, sabotage,
bomb threats, and hijacking, must
also be included.
• Measures for special incidents, as well as notification and
reporting procedures
417
Warning systems
In addition to the above-mentioned areas, Part A also includes

several general (not type-related) operational
procedures. These include:
• Procedures relating to altitude alerting systems;
• Ground proximity warning system/terrain avoidance
warning system. Procedures and instructions required for
the avoidance of controlled flight into terrain, including
limitations on high rates of descent near the surface;
• Policies and procedures for the use of TCAS/ACAS.
418
Definition of terms used
Commencement of flight
The time at which the aircraft moves under its own power with
the intention to take-off.
Inoperative
The instrument/item of equipment that does not operate as

intended or is not ready for operation/faulty.
Redundant devices which, when the redundancy system is

activated, output an error message, are not necessarily included
in this category. 419
Definition of terms used…
cont’d
MEL and MMEL
The abbreviation MEL stands for Minimum Equipment List. MMEL

stands for Master Minimum Equipment List.
Rectification interval
This is the maximum period of time that an aircraft can be
operated before rectifying an "inoperative" item of equipment.
Validity of the MEL

The MEL is only valid until commencement of the flight. This
means that the MEL is no longer applicable from
the moment the aircraft begins to move with the intention to
take-off under its own power. 420
Creation of MEL and MMEL
 The MMEL is issued by the legislative authority for each
aircraft type and is considered as being the list of minimum
requirements.
 Operators must establish/specify an appropriate MEL for each

aircraft operated, which satisfies the MMEL and must not have
fewer restrictions than the MMEL.
 The list may also include other limitations.
421
Creation of MEL and MMEL…
cont’d
All operators are required to comply with this list.
These lists regulate whether an aeroplane is permitted to operate

or not in the event of the failure of certain items of equipment or
systems.
For example, a MMEL may permit an aeroplane with a defective

navigation light to conduct a VFR flight during the day but the
MEL does not.
In summary, this means:

• The operator is responsible for the MEL;
• The aviation authority is responsible for the MMEL. 422
Responsibility of crew
members
A crew member must report to the commander any fault, failure,
malfunction or defect that he believes may affect the airworthiness,
auxiliary systems or safe operation of the aeroplane.
This also relates to faults and failures , concerning the equipment in
accordance with the MEL.
The commander must then make a decision regarding the

commencement of the flight.
Since we are referring to the MEL, this is only relevant prior to the
commencement of the flight. Of course, generally speaking, all faults
and failures are to be reported to the commander.
423
Responsibility of the commander…cont’d
If the commander identifies a fault or failure, or if such a fault or
failure is reported, it must be checked against the
Minimum Equipment List.
Using this list, the commander must then decide whether the
flight may commence or not.
In principle, one could say that the MEL must be verified in the
event of a fault or failure.
If the MEL allows flight operation, then the flight may also
commence as the MEL may not be less restrictive than the
MMEL.
424
Type-related instructions and procedures
We will now look at the relevant parts of Part B of the operations
manual.
This includes all type-related instructions and procedures
necessary for safe operation.
The differences between types, variants or individual aircraft
used by the operator, must also be considered. These include:
• General information and units of measure;
• Operational limits;
• Normal procedures;
• Special procedures and emergency procedures;
• Flight performance;
• Flight planning;
425
Type-related instructions and procedures…
cont’d
 Aircraft mass and balance;
• Payload;
• Configuration deviation list(s);
• Minimum equipment lists(s);
• Survival and emergency equipment, including oxygen;
• Emergency evacuation procedures;

426
• Aircraft systems.
Content of part B
ln addition to the above-mentioned areas, Part B also includes several

very important type-related operational procedures.
These include:
• Abnormal and emergency procedures –
The abnormal and emergency procedures and duties assigned to the

crew, the appropriate checklists, the system for use of the checklists
and a statement covering the necessary coordination procedures
between flight and cabin crew.
427
cont’d
The following abnormal and emergency procedures and duties must be
included:
• Incapacitation of crew members;
• Fire and smoke drills;
• Unpressurised and partially pressurized flight;
• Exceedance of structural limits such as overweight
landing;
• Exceedance of cosmic radiation limits;
• Lightning strikes;
• Distress communications and alerting ATC to emergencies;
• Engine failure;
428
cont’d
• Flight instrument failure;
• Guidance for diversion in case of serious technical failure;
• Ground proximity warning;
• TCAS warning;
• Wind shear;
• Emergency landings/ditching;
• Departure contingency procedures. 429

Configuration Deviation List
(CDL)
 The configuration deviation list(s) if provided by the
manufacturer, taking account of the aeroplane types
and variants operated, including procedures to be
followed when an aeroplane is being dispatched under
the terms of its CDL.
430
MEL (Minimum Equipment List)
 This takes account of the aeroplane types and variants

operated and the type(s)/area(s) of operation.
 The MEL must include the navigational equipment and take

into account the required performance for the planned route
and area of operation.
431
Emergency evacuation procedures
Instructions for preparing for emergency evacuation, including
crew co-ordination and emergency station
assignment.
Emergency evacuation procedures.
A description of the duties of all members of the crew for the

rapid evacuation of an aeroplane and the handling of the
passengers in the event of a forced landing, ditching or
any other emergency situation.
432
Icing Conditions
Because icing is one of the most dangerous phenomena in aviation,

there are also a considerable number of procedures to be observed,
which we will discuss below.
Ground de-icing and anti-icing
The prevention of ice accretion and ensuring that aeroplane

surfaces remain free from deposits begins on the ground, with
de-icing and icing checks.
433
Definitions: de-icing terms
Anti-icing
precautionary measures that are required in order to prevent

deposits such as ice, snow, etc.. from occurring on the critical
surfaces of an aeroplane.
De-icing
This is not a precautionary measure, but rather a process that

actually removes ice, snow, etc.. from the critical
surfaces of an aeroplane.
This can be done, for example, by using "pneumatic boosts" or 434

heated fluids.
Definitions: de-icing terms…cont’d
Combined de-icing/anti-icing
In principle, two basic procedures have been established for combined

de-icing and anti-icing:
• One-step de-icing/anti-icing.
This concerns a heated fluid used for de-icing and anti-icing. By

applying the heated liquid under pressure, the existing layer of ice is
removed, while the anti-icing agent is applied.
• Two-step de-icing/anti-icing.
As the name suggests, this is a process consisting of two steps. In the

first step the actual de-icing is carried out and only then is an anti-
icing agent applied. 435
Definitions: de-icing terms…cont’d
Holdover time
This term refers to the estimated time during which the anti-icing
becomes effective and prevents the accretion of
ice, snow, etc..
436
Definitions: weather
Drizzle
conditions
A uniform precipitate consisting of tiny, fine and densely
distributed rain droplets with a diameter of between
0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. This precipitation falls to the ground, unlike,
for example, fog.
Fog
A visible collection of water droplets, which can restrict visibility
considerably. This occurs when the temperature
and dew point are the same, thus saturating the air.
The water in the air is then visible in the form of fog, as in the
formation of clouds. Officially speaking, the term "fog" is only
used when visibility drops to below 1 km. For visibilities of up to
5 km, the phenomenon is called "wet haze". 437
conditions…cont’d
Freezing fog
Super cooled water droplets this haze freezes on contact with

surfaces.
438
Freezing rain or drizzle
Rain and drizzle in the form of super cooled water droplets

freeze on contact with surfaces.
439
Rain
Liquid precipitation consisting of droplets with a diameter of
more than 0.5 mm or less, if the raindrops are
evenly distributed as in drizzle.
Rime
Rime is a white or milky and opaque granular deposit of ice
formed by the rapid freezing of super cooled water droplets
as they impinge. This is what produces its typical form and
appearance.
440
Slush
Snow supersaturated with water. Slush usually occurs when snow

gradually begins to melt and the temperature
are still slightly positive or at 0oc.
Snow
Precipitation in the form of fine ice crystals.

We basically differentiate two types of snow:
• Dry snow occurs at ambient air temperatures or just
below freezing point;
• Wet snow occurs at ambient air temperatures of just
above freezing point. 441
Snow on aeroplane surfaces can freeze.
442
weather conditions…cont’d
The "Clean Aircraft Concept"
The "Clean Aircraft Concept" is fundamental to safety and

stipulates that a take-off may not be conducted if the surfaces of
an aircraft (wings, rudder etc..) are affected by icing, snow,
slush, or frost unless otherwise specified in
the flight manual.
Ice, snow, slush or frost on the critical surfaces of an

aeroplane not only cause aerodynamic problems, but can
also block moveable parts of the aircraft.
443
The "Clean Aircraft Concept“…cont’d
There are many factors that contribute to or increase deposits of
snow or ice on an aircraft.
A sound knowledge of these factors in practice is of significant
value.
These factors include:

 Outside temperature;
 The temperature on the fuselage of the aircraft;
 The intensity of the precipitation, and humidity;
 The temperature of the de-icing and anti-icing fluid;
 The ratio between water and de-icing or anti-icing fluid;
 The relative air humidity;
 Wind speed and wind direction.
444
The "Clean Aircraft Concept“…cont’d
 In order to prevent the formation of ice and the resulting

problems, de-icing and subsequent anti-icing must be
performed on the ground.
 In addition, this procedure must be followed up by a visual

inspection of all critical surfaces.
 This is usually carried out by de-icing personnel because pilots

have no direct view of all these surfaces at the time of de-
icing.
445
Types of de-icing and anti-
icing fluids
The basic principle of a de-icing/anti-icing fluid is to lower the
freezing point in order to prevent or delay the formation or build-up of
ice, snow, etc.. on an aircraft.
There are four different types, each with a different composition and
specific application.
Category I
• Viscid;
• Available in diluted or concentrated form;
• Contains a high proportion of glycol (80%)- the rest is
water, rust inhibitor, etc..;
• Must be heated before being applied;
• Can be orange-colored;
• Usually only used for de-icing; 446
• Very short holdover time.
icing fluids
Type II, Ill and IV
• Viscous;
• Available in diluted or concentrated form;
• Adheres better but separates from surfaces during take-off- this
is very important: all fluid deposits shot...._
separate during take-off!
447
icing fluids
Type II
• Consists of more than 50% glycol;

• Used for de-icing and anti-icing in freezing temperatures.
Type Ill
• Effectively obsolete;
• Used for de-icing and anti-icing;
• These agents have basically the same or similar properties
to type II, but are only suitable for temperature below -25 °C. 448
icing fluids
Type IV
• Used for de-icing and anti-icing;

• These agents have basically the same or similar
properties to type II, but are only suitable for temperature
below -30 °C.
 Important! It is extremely important to note that an anti-icing

fluid must not be applied to an existing layer of anti-icing
fluid.
 This must first be removed by de-icing again. Only then can
the anti-icing fluid be applied.
449
Different types of de-icing
fluids
Type I Type II Type Ill Type IV
450
Different types of de-icing
fluids…cont’d
End of holdover time
The anti-icing fluid may not simply be re-applied when the total
holdover time has been reached. The whole process
of de-icing and anti-icing should first be repeated.
451
Tables for holdover times and factors that reduce the
holdover time
As already explained in the definitions, the holdover time is an estimated time during
which the anti-icing agent becomes effective and actually prevents the formation of ice,
snow, etc..
These times are not exact. If the holdover time is 45 minutes, for example, then the
anti-icing also expires after 40 minutes or after 50 minutes.
This depends on many different factors, as listed below:
 Nature and intensity of precipitation;
 Outside temperature;
 Relative air humidity;
 Wind force and direction;
 Temperature of aircraft fuselage;
 De-icing/anti-icing agents;
 Position in relation to other aircraft (e.g. relative to the exhaust jets).
 The primary factor, however, is the de-icing agent used. The following tables
list the official values relative to the
 air temperature and weather conditions.
452
Pre-flight checks by the commander
 Depending on the particular airport, some time may elapse

from the time the de-icing/anti-icing begins until the time the
actual take-off commences.
 Whatever procedure is used, it is always the responsibility of

the "pilot-in-command" to consider whether the critical
surfaces of the aircraft are free of ice, snow and slush, etc..
before commencing take-off.
 Since pilots have only a limited view from the cockpit, this
check should be conducted shortly before take-off by means
of a visual inspection of the wings (e.g. from inside the 453
aeroplane).
Symmetrical de-icing
 There are also regulations that specify how the de-icing/anti-icing
agents are to be applied.
 This is generally done using large high-pressure nozzles that apply

the respective agent to the aircraft surface under high pressure after
being heated.
 The most important rule is that the fluids must be applied in a

symmetrical and uniform manner.
 This means that the fluids have to be applied evenly on all aircraft
surfaces so as to provide a uniform de-icing and anti-icing layer.
 There's no point in treating the wings but neglecting the tail plane.
454
Image-De-icing of aircraft
fuselage
455
Image : Application of anti-icing
fluid to the wings
456
Establishing procedures
 In order to ensure that the application of these de-icing and anti-

icing agents and related checks are conducted
properly whilst observing all necessary safety measures,
the operator must define procedures for all these activities
in the operations manual.
 Part of the above-mentioned procedure is a final decision of the

commander. A commander shall not commence take-off unless
the external surfaces are clear of any deposit that might adversely
affect the performance and/or controllability of the aeroplane
457
Establishing procedures…cont’d
 Procedure in the event of the deterioration of flight
performance As explained above, icing and other
contaminants must be avoided and take-off should be avoided
under such conditions.
 The reason for this is that changes occur in the flight and
control characteristics of the aeroplane, which may ultimately
lead to a complete loss of control.
458
The adverse effects of icing include:
459
 It should be noted that severe icing of the whole aircraft,
particularly thick clear ice caused by freezing temperatures ,
causes a significant increase in the mass of the aircraft, thus
reducing its ability to climb.
 Since the 1950 s, the CAA has introduced provisions that

prohibit the take-off of aeroplanes with deposits on
critical surfaces/control surfaces.
 The reason for this is that such deposits affect the

airworthiness and flight performance of an aircraft in an
unpredictable manner.
460
 The reason for this is that such deposits affect the
airworthiness and flight performance of an aircraft in an
unpredictable manner.
 These effects are subject to a number of variables, such as the

design of the aircraft.
 There are just as many factors involved as there are effects.
 These effects vary from iced openings, to the reduction of

wing lift caused by icing on the wings and the obstruction of
moving parts.
461
The most significant of effects in terms of actual flight
performance is caused by the icing of the wings.
For example, tests have shown that the icing of ;

 the leading and
 trailing edges and
 upper surfaces of the wings, or
 the deposit of snow or frost on the wings,
can reduce lift by 30%, and at the same time can increase drag by
about 40%.
462
Icing on the ground and in the
air
 Once an aeroplane becomes airborne, there are precautions
that can be taken and devices that can be used to prevent ice
accumulation or to remove existing ice accretion so that it
does not affect the flight characteristics or performance of an
aeroplane.
 The methods for anti-icing and de-icing in flight usually

consist of hot air from the engine for heating the leading
edges of the wings and other critical areas, such as

the air inlets of the engines.
463
Icing on the ground and in the air…cont’d
 Turboprop aircraft generally use "de-icing boots".
 Engine anti-ice should be selected ON anytime the

indicated RAT is 10°C or below, and visible moisture in
any form is present.
 WING/STAB device should be selected as soon as ice

is observed to accrue anywhere on the airplane.
 If ice remains on the airplane during approach and

landing, maximum flap extension is limited to
TO/APR position.
464
Risk and Prevention of Bird Strikes
 That bird strikes can present a huge risk to aviation has

been shown recently by the ditching of U.S. Airways flight
1549 in the Hudson River.
 Therefore, there are several information services and

procedures that we deal with in the following.
465
Risk and Prevention of Bird Strikes
Information regarding the presence of bird swarms
 Because of the hazards associated with the presence of

birds at airports and because take-offs and landings are the
most critical flight phases of an aircraft,
 airports or aeronautical services must provide operators

with any relevant information regarding potential bird
hazards.
 This information is generally made available during the

NOTAM briefing.
466
Risk and Prevention of Bird Strikes…
cont’d
Because the presence of birds is not generally automatically

recognized, states must ;
 ensure that arrangements are made to receive information

concerning the presence of birds observed by aircrews and
 must ensure that such information is made available to the

Aeronautical Information Services (AIS) for such distribution as
the circumstances necessitate.
467
Risk and Prevention of Bird
Strikes…cont’d
 35,000 bird strikes have been reported and recorded in the
ICAO Bird Strike Information System (IBIS). Based on
these data, the following brief conclusion can be drawn that:
 Approximately 5% of all bird strikes can be described as

significant as these have caused structural damage to the
aeroplane concerned;
When bird strikes generally occur:

• 65% of all bird strikes occur during daylight;
• 15% of all bird strikes occur at night;
• 20% of strikes occur at dusk;
468
Risk and Prevention of Bird Strikes…
cont’d
 65% of all bird strikes affect turbofan aircraft (modern
turbine engines) with an MTOM of more than 27,000kg;
• 29% of all bird strikes occur during the approach
phase of the flight;
• 25% of all bird strikes occur during take-off/take-
off run;
• 51% of all bird strikes occur below 100 ft;
• In 92% of cases, pilots were not warned about the
relevant bird activities.
469
Risk factors concerning bird presence at
airports
Moreover, it has been found that certain areas of land
surrounding airports attract birds and therefore increase therisk
of bird strikes.
These include:
 Fish-processing industry;
 Agriculture/farming;
 Feeding spots for cattle
 Waste landfills and other waste sites;
 Storage places for food waste;
 Natural parks and zoos etc..;
 Lakes;
 Golf and polo facilities;
 Slaughterhouses.
470
Risk factors concerning bird presence at
airports…cont’d
 Responsibility of the pilot in command
 It is the responsibility of the commander to inform the local air

traffic service unit immediately whenever a potential bird
hazard is identified or observed.
 Should a bird strike occur, the commander must submit a

written by strike report after landing to the local authority.
 However, this is only required if a bird strike results in

significant
 damage to the aircraft or the loss or malfunction of any
essential service. 471
Noise Abatement
 In times of rising traffic numbers, bans on night-flying etc..,
topics such as the noise abatement are becoming increasingly
important to the general public.
 However, when compared to the numbers in recent decades, it

can be said that modern aircraft have become quieter and the
establishment of appropriate noise abatement procedures at
airports has greatly contributed to the minimization of noise.
472
Noise Abatement…cont’d
473
Noise abatement procedures
The "noise abatement procedures" make a significant

contribution to the reduction of noise in the close vicinity of
airports.
The procedures are based on two main concepts. which we shall

describe here in more detail.
474
Noise abatement procedures…cont’d
Responsibility of the operator
 the operator must also provide for appropriate

operating procedures, which take account of noise
abatement.
 However, safety has priority over noise reduction in

all cases and such procedures must ensure that
operations are simple and safe to conduct.
475
 In principle, the operator must specify two different noise

abatement procedures for each type of aircraft.
 These must include a procedure to minimize noise in noise-

sensitive areas in close proximity to the runway-in-use
(NADP1) and
 a further procedure for minimizing noise in areas more

distant from the runway (NADP 2).
476
Responsibility of the pilot in command
If the commander believes that there are signs indicating that a

safe NADP-procedure cannot be performed, he can
opt not to carry out the procedure and resort to a more
conventional method. Such factors include:
• Conflicting air traffic in the departure zone and the
necessity to deviate from the flight course;
• High traffic density;
• Instructions by air traffic control;
• Weather conditions, that require the full power of the
aircraft, for example in the event of wind shear.
477
Influence of flight procedure (departure, cruise flight, approach)
It is obvious that the noise generated on the ground by an aircraft, is

primarily influenced by the flight phase.
Noise levels are at their highest during take-off and landing.
For take-offs, there are two different procedures that reduce

the noise at varying distances from the airport during take-off.
i.e. NADP1 and NADP2

478
Noise abatement during landings
In accordance with ICAO Annex 14, it is recommended that a

runway lead-in lighting system be provided if noise
abatement procedures are in place during an approach.
Refer to the AlP for noise abatement procedures applicable to

airports.
More specifically, this airport-related information

can be found in sections AD2 and AD3 (aerodromes).
479
Influence of the pilot (power settings and drag)
It is not only the flight phase itself that has a significant effect
on noise levels, but also the pilot.
Parameters such as
thrust and drag (flaps, etc..)
are the primary factors that can be influenced by the pilot.
480
Factors influencing a landing in accordance with noise
abatement procedures
If a noise abatement procedure is to be carried out as part of an

approach, the weather must meet certain requirements , as is the
case during a take-off.
If these conditions cannot be met, then a safe approach can no

longer be conducted.
481
Factors that may prohibit such approaches include:
• Runway contaminations such as snow, ice, slush, water, rubber, oil

etc.. (i.e. when the runway is not dry and clean).
• If the cloud base (ceiling) is less than 150 m (500ft) above aerodrome
elevation or if the horizontal visibility is less than 1.9 km (1 NM);
• If the crosswind component (including gusts) exceeds 28 km/h ( 15 kt);
• If the tailwind component (including gusts) exceeds 9 km/h (5 kt);
• If wind shear is predicted or has been reported or when thunderstorms

are expected in the respective approach zone.
482
Use of thrust reversal

Although the use of reverse thrust produces a lot of noise. it is a
fundamental part of the landing procedure and
subsequent deceleration process, so noise abatement procedures
should not prohibit the use of reverse thrust.
483
Fire and Smoke
 Fire and smoke can present an extremely dangerous situation,
both for the technology and for the people aboard and
aeroplane.
 Only background knowledge of the situation (exact cause of

the fire or smoke) and adequate handling can prevent its
further escalation.
 This is why we will discuss some of the primary causes of

smoke and fire, as well as the actions required to combat a fire.
484
Fire and Smoke…cont’d
Carburetor fire
 As the name implies, carburetor fires only occur in combustion
engines.
 Particularly in the winter, but essentially during any season of

the year, carburetor fires can be caused by the frequent injection
of an excessive amount of fuel in the intake manifold or directly
into the cylinders.
 On ignition, the air/fuel mixture can begin to burn in the open

intake valve- this is what we call a "carburetor fire".
 A carburetor fire can be identified by the development of smoke

or large flames caused by vaporizing oil residues. 485
Measures to be taken in the event of a carburetor fire
As a carburetor fire occurs very rapidly and requires immediate

action, there is not usually much time to go
through the checklists.
The following points must therefore be memorized ("memory
items").
1. Shut off the fuel feed immediately using the mixture lever;
2. Set the throttle to maximum (throttle up);
3. Do not switch off the ignition- this will "suck" the flames back into the
engine again;
4. Close the fuel shut-off valve;
5. Extinguish the fire.
If this occurs in the air, this requires an immediate landing. 486
Engine fire
 The cause of an engine fire is not always readily identifiable; it

may be for various reasons.
 In some cases, we can predict problems through the use of

engine monitoring instruments and act accordingly.
 For example, a drop in fuel pressure or fluctuating fuel pressure

readings may be an indication.
 A restless running engine may also be an indication.
487
Engine fire…cont’d
 In large modern aircraft, engines are fitted with temperature

sensors that allow continuous monitoring and also enable an
engine fire to be prevented or easily recognized.
 Even a bird strike can cause an engine fire or cause an engine

failure at take-off. Unfortunately, there are no instruments to
predict this, so incidents like this
require our immediate attention.
488
Procedure in the event of an engine fire during take-

off
 Should it ever come to an engine fire, the pilot must always
use the appropriate checklists of the current aircraft type,
follow all listed procedures and carry out all prescribed
actions.
 A typical procedure would be as follows:

• Cut off mixture;
• Turn off fuel selector;
• Turn master switch off;
• Turn cabin heat & air off; 489
• Increase airspeed to blow off the fire.
Fire in the cabin, cockpit or cargo compartment

Fires occur not only in an engine or in a carburetor; they may even
break out inside an aircraft, for example,
 in the cockpit,
 in the cabin or
 cargo compartments.
490
Fire extinguishers
 Different extinguishing agents must be used, depending on

the particular type of fire (electrical, chemical, wood,
metal etc..).
 A knowledge of this data is essential for effective fire-

fighting.
 There are also extinguishers that can be universally for

several types of fire.
491
 The following matrix provides an overview of the different fire classes.
492
Precautionary measures when fighting fires

 Depending on the type of fire extinguishing agent used, certain
precautionary measures must be taken.
 When using carbon dioxide as an extinguishing agent, it

should be noted that the extinguishing effect is based on
the extraction of oxygen.
 If this type of extinguisher is used in confined spaces, the

immediate evacuation of a persons or the use of
adequate breathing apparatus must be ensured due to
the rapid depletion and loss of oxygen.
493
 It should generally be observed that the extinguisher is

pointed away from the body or body parts when
extinguishing .
 Fire extinguishers must undergo regular maintenance

in accordance with manufacturer requirements. Every
extinguisher has an adhesive label with the relevant
information regarding maintenance.
494
When fire extinguishers are used, the following should be
noted.
 Extinguish fire in wind direction.
 Extinguish extensive fires from the front side.
 Extinguish from bottom to top. Only if burning substances

are dripping or flowing, fight the fire at the source.
 Apply sufficient number of extinguishers simultaneously -

not one after the other.
 Beware of re-ignition.
495
Fire extinguishers in cockpit, cabin, toilets and cargo holds
Depending on the location of the fire occurrence in an aeroplane. a distinction

must be made between the types of fire extinguisher to be used.
496
Smoke in the cockpit and cabin
In addition to acute visual impairment, smoke in the cockpit and

in the cabin can also restrict breathing.
Therefore, special procedures apply for both cockpit and cabin

crew members in the event of smoke in the cockpit or cabin
space.
497
Procedure in the event of smoke in the cockpit and cabin
Smoke in the cockpit
 If smoke is detected in the cockpit, then the flight crew must put on
the "Quick-Donning Masks", adjust them to 100% oxygen and then
put on their smoke goggles.
 These smoke goggles are manufactured in such a manner that they fit
nicely over the oxygen masks.
 The supply of oxygen also prevents fogging. While wearing the

mask, the cockpit crew must switch the microphone to "mask" in
order to continue communications with air traffic control.
498
Wearing oxygen masks and smoke goggles 499

Smoke in the cabin
 A special smoke suit is available for cabin crew, which covers the
entire head.
 This device can be worn on the body to ensure that the cabin
crew can still move freely in the cabin.
 Some of these masks even have a filter system which filters out
toxic fumes.
 These masks generally provide the cabin crew with oxygen for
about 15 minutes. 500
A typical checklist for handling smoke in the cabin or cockpit may look like this.
501
Actions to be taken in the event of overheated brakes

Problems and precautions in the event of overheated brakes
 One common cause of overheating is landing above the

maximum permissible landing mass and thus requiring a
stronger braking action than normal.
 An aborted take-off or other technical problems may also

cause a fire in the brakes.
502
Problems and precautions in the event of overheated
brakes…cont’d
 Overheated brakes also present a risk of explosion because
the overheating of tires can cause them to expand and burst.
 lf overheating results in fire, then the risk of an explosion

occurring is even greater.
 Incidents occurring as a result of overheating (of tires,

brakes, etc..), or fires, are not normally dealt with by crew
members, but instead by the airport fire services.
 Nevertheless, it is important to know what to do and what to

avoid if such an incident should occur.
503
Actions to be taken in the event of overheated brakes

• Park the aircraft in an isolated area;
• If at all possible, never use a coolant;
• In propeller-driven aircraft, it is advisable to run the
propeller to utilize the cooling airflow;
• The tires of modern aircraft have a "fusible plug", which
dissolves on heating and discharges air from the tire -
this will reduce the risk of an explosion;
• It is important to note that high temperatures can still
occur in the brakes after the aircraft has been parked
for 15-20 minutes.
504
Actions to be taken in the event of fires in the brakes
or tires
• Use a dry powder or a water sprayer to cool down and

extinguish the fire;
• Never use a fire extinguisher from the plane - these are

not suitable!
• Never approach the brakes and/or wheels from the side.

Always from the front or rear. In the event of an explosion,
parts of the tire or rim can rip off with considerable force
and cause serious injury. 505
Decompression of Pressurized
Cabins
 Although the use of pressurized cabins has many benefits, it
also presents certain risks.
 If the pressure systems in the cabin fail and the fuselage is

damaged to such an extent that the interior pressure can no
longer be maintained, then quick action is called for, since
man is unable to survive at high altitudes without cabin
pressurization.
506
Cabins…cont’d
Gradual decompression
The pressure in the cabin is generated as follows:
 Entry of bleed air into the cabin from the power plants;
 Air is then discharged from the fuselage through small

openings - the "outflow valves" or "bleed valves".
 These valves can be operated and adjusted, either automatically or

manually.
 Depending on how strongly this valve is opened, a certain amount of air

leaves the aircraft through these valves, but a large proportion of the air
still remains. This causes a build-up of pressure.
 If this valve were to be closed completely, then the aircraft would inflate
like a balloon, because air is fed into the cabin and not released. 507
Cabins…cont’d
Signs of gradual decompression
 If, for example, a technical problem with the outflow valve

should occur, i.e. if it is fully opened, then certain levels of
pressure can no longer be maintained.
 In turn, this would mean that the pressure in the cabin would
slowly but surely drop and, in extreme cases, eventually lead
to an equalization between the inside and outside pressure.
 Further grounds for gradual decompression might be leaking

door seals or cracks in the windows.
508
Cabins…cont’d
Technical recognition
 There are certain instruments available in the cockpit that record

and display differential pressure as well as cabin altitude.
 These instruments can be used by the flight crew to identify gradual

decompression, provided they are regularly monitored.
509
Cabins…cont’d
Technical recognition…cont’d
510
Cabins…cont’d
Technical recognition…cont’d
 If the cabin altitude rises, or if the "cabin rate-of-climb"
instrument indicates an unexplained increase, this should alert
the pilots to a problem so that appropriate action can be taken.
 A further means of "technical" recognition is the sudden
deployment of the supplemental oxygen masks in the
passenger compartment.
 These are deployed automatically when a cabin altitude of

10,000 ft is exceeded. If that occurs, quick action is required,
as the cabin altitude has exceeded the maximum or critical
value at that particular moment.
511
Cabins…cont’d
Human recognition/awareness
Human recognition and awareness of gradual decompression may

not always be possible and largely depends on the situation.
The signs and symptoms may also vary. This is due to the individual
differences in responses of the human body to hypoxia.
512
Cabins…cont’d
The following symptoms may indicate the occurrence of a
gradual decompression( although this list is not exhaustive).
• Unusual sounds, particularly from doors and windows
(whistling noises or tones of a similar nature):
• Ear problems;
• Joint ache;
• Expansion of gases in the stomach which may result in
abdominal pain, bloating, belching or flatulence.
513
Actions required in the event of gradual
decompression
 When gradual decompression occurs, the required actions

depend primarily on the status of the decompression.
 If decompression is detected at an early stage, measures

can be taken to prevent further damage or injury.
 The commander must ensure that a cabin altitude is reached

that no longer requires the provision of supplemental oxygen
to crew and passengers.
514
decompression…cont’d
 If the cabin altitude increases again, the problem must

be reported to air traffic control and the descent must be
continued until a safe cabin altitude can be maintained.
 The commander must then decide on the further course

of action to be taken (either the continuation of the flight,
or a diversion to an alternate aerodrome).
 If the oxygen masks have already been activated

automatically, it is important to act quickly, because the
supplemental oxygen is only available for a certain
period of time (approximately 15 minutes). 515
 Failure to use the oxygen masks would result in
unconsciousness and the inability to perform the further
checks on the checklist, which is the responsibility of the
flight crew.
 It is then necessary to perform an emergency descent for

the duration permitted by the oxygen available, until a safe
breathing altitude is reached.
 This descent must continue until a safe altitude of 10,000 ft

is reached. 516
A checklist for the emergency descent could be as follows.
Oxygen Mask ........................ ON

Crew Communication ... ..... . ESTABLISHED
Power Levers ...................... . IDLE
Emergency descend ............. INITIATE
Prop Lever ........................... HIGH RPM
Landing Gear .........................DOWN
Flaps ......................................FULL DOWN
Airspeed .................................max 156 Kts
1 0.000 ft I MSA ......................LEVEL OFF
517
Rapid and explosive decompression
 A sudden drop in cabin pressure or explosive decompression

obviously requires immediate action to be taken.
 The cause of explosive decompression is not generally attributed

to a failure in the pressure system, but can be significantly more
dramatic, such as a rupture in the fuselage of the aircraft.
518
Rapid and explosive decompression…cont’d
Signs indicating a rapid or explosive decompression
Instruments and other indicators for detecting a sudden
decompression are not generally required. The signs are clearly
recognized.
The following signs are clear indicators of a sudden loss of pressure:

• Loud bang resulting from the rapid loss of pressure balance:
• Rapid decrease in temperature;
• Clouds/fog/haze in the cabin as a result of the sudden drop in
temperature;
• Failure of passenger oxygen masks.
519
Rapid and explosive decompression…
cont’d
Signs indicating a rapid or explosive compression…cont’d
If an additional problem exists with the structure of the aircraft,
 unrestrained or unsecured objects in the immediate proximity

of the rupture can fly around the cabin or
 even be sucked through the hole in the opening in the fuselage.
 The loud noise associated with the rapid loss of pressure may
also trigger panic among the passengers.
520
Rapid and explosive decompression…cont’d
Dangers and required actions
 By far the greatest risk in the event of a sudden loss of

pressure is an oxygen deficit.
 If a rapid decompression occurs at a typical cruise altitude

(between 30,000-45,000 ft), a rapid descent to between
20,000-35,000 ft must be made in order to ensure a
sufficient supply of oxygen.
 The supplemental oxygen available to passengers is not

usually sufficient for more than 15 minutes.
521
Dangers and required actions…cont’d
 So, in order to reach a safe altitude from 35,000 ft within

15 minutes. a descent rate of 2,300 ft/min would be
required.
 A further complication is that, at altitudes of above 30,000-

45,000 ft oxygen should actually be provided under pressure.
 This is not the case for additional oxygen for passengers. This
is why a more rapid descent is required.
522
 However, before commencing the descent, the crew must always activate and
apply the oxygen masks.
 Failure to use the oxygen masks would result in unconsciousness and the
inability to perform the further checks on the checklist, which is the
responsibility of the flight crew.
 The procedure that then follows is an immediate emergency descent to a safe

altitude.
 In order to conduct the descent as quickly as possible, i.e. at the greatest

possible sink rate, the crew need to initiate a gradual descent turn. This
emergency descent must be performed until a safe breathing altitude of 10,000
ft is reached.
523
Checklist for an emergency descent
524
 The greatest danger during a decompression is an oxygen

deficit (lack of oxygen).
 During slow decompression, the effects become apparent only

very gradually.
 The effects during a sudden drop in pressure are much quicker.

This is generally called hypoxia or altitude sickness.
 The body shows very strong individual symptoms which can

vary.
525
The following list shows the various symptoms that may occur,
but not all necessarily .
Other symptoms may also occur.

• Pains in the stomach or stomach region;
• Itching hands and feet;
• Blue-colored lips and fingernails (cyanosis);
• Higher rate of respiration;
• Headache;
• Light-headedness/stupor;
• Transpiration;
• Euphoria;
• Ear problems;
526
• Loss of consciousness;
• Impaired judgement;
• Impaired speech;
• Lack or loss of concentration.
It is important to mention here that the individual symptoms can

vary significantly.
As has been shown. Hypoxia produces a feeling of well-being.

People affected by hypoxia fly happily and full of joy to their
immediate death.
527
 Depending on the altitude at which a person is exposed to a

sudden loss of pressure, a certain time window remains until
the onset of unconsciousness, called "Time of Useful
Consciousness" (TUC), occurs.
 The values in the following table give a rough idea.
 However, please note that the values may vary , depending on

a person's physical fitness and state of health (smokers die
sooner).
528
529
Wind Shear and Microbursts
 Downbursts and microbursts can develop into extremely
dangerous situations if they are not detected early enough or
if no appropriate action is taken.
 A wind shear is generally defined as being a difference in

wind speed and direction between two points in the
atmosphere.
 There are both vertical and horizontal wind shears.
 Squalls occur mainly in the vicinity of thunderstorms and

rain showers.
530
Wind Shear and
Microbursts…cont’d
Influence and recognition during take-off and
landing
 These phenomena are especially critical during the landing

phase, since the distance to the ground is low and the planned
flight level can therefore change drastically as a result of a
down burst.
 A tragic example of this was the crash of Delta Airlines flight

191 in 1985.
 As already indicated, there are different types of wind shear

and squalls. 531
Wind Shear and
Low-level wind shear
 As the name suggests, these are wind shears (either vertical or

horizontal) that occur in the lower layers of the
atmosphere.
 These are particularly hazardous for air traffic during take-off

and landing (arrival and departure).
532
Wind Shear and
Types of wind shear
Vertical wind shear
Vertical wind shear is a strong change in the vertical wind direction

and/or speed of the wind over short distances and heights.
Horizontal wind shear
Horizontal wind shear is a strong change in the horizontal wind

direction and/or speed over short horizontal distances.
533
Wind Shear and
Updraft wind shear
This is wind shear that causes the onset of updrafts. A plane in

the wind shear would therefore rise.
Downdraft wind shear
This is a wind shear that causes downdrafts to rise. An

aeroplane encountering wind shear would therefore be
forced downwards (i.e. drop rapidly).
534
Wind Shear and Microbursts…cont’d
Meteorological conditions
Wind shear is generally produced in certain weather situations.
These are:
• Thunderstorms;
• Land-to-sea winds;
• Jet streams in the lower atmosphere;
• Fronts;
• Mountain waves.
535
Wind Shear and
 Recognizing wind shear (downbursts and microbursts)
There are basically two approaches for detecting wind
shear.
 On the one hand, certain weather conditions indicate

a likelihood of wind shear and, on the other hand, there
are instruments on board that allow for its recognition.
536
Wind Shear and Microbursts…cont’d
Weather conditions
Virga
Virga is precipitation that has already evaporated in the air again

before reaching the ground. However, these clouds are associated
with downdrafts.
537
Wind Shear and
Mountain waves (lenticular or rotor clouds)
 Mountain waves can build up above certain wind speeds on the lee
side (the leeward side) of the mountain ranges.
 This forms visible lenticular clouds. Strong downdrafts should be

taken into account.
 Rotor clouds are associated with mountain waves of mountain

ranges.
 Rotors can be found beneath lenticular clouds.
 The wind changes here like a rotor and there are very strong
updrafts and downdrafts that can form rotor clouds.
538
Wind Shear and
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are a clear indication of potential wind shear

occurrence.
Wind shear can occur even in areas that are not located directly
within a thunderstorm, for example, due to preceding shelf
clouds.
539
Wind Shear and
Other signs
• Strong, gusty surface winds of over 40 knots;

• Difference between ground level and wind is more than
40 knots;
• Inversions of 100 c or more above ground in the first 1,000 ft;
• Windsocks, which appear "uneasy";
• Staggered columns of smoke;
• Smoke rising straight up with no wind. If columns of rising
smoke undergo strong displacement or shearing,
this indicates the presence of wind shear in that area.
540
Wind Shear and
Flight instruments
 Various aircraft instruments can also provide information

regarding the presence of wind shear.
 Sudden variations in airspeed on the airspeed indicator can be

a sign of wind shear.
541
Wind Shear and
INS/IRS
 Some INS and IRS systems provide an early warning
capability.
 The mode can be selected and activated by pressing the
options WIND and HOLD simultaneously.
 If the display shows 88888, this is an indication that wind
shear has been detected.
GPWS
 Current GPWS systems provide warnings of wind shear in
mode 7.
 If they are detected, the relevant displays will be activated and
an audible warning will be heard (wind shear, wind shear,
wind shear). 542
Wind Shear and
Actions required to avoid flying into wind shear
The safest way to avoid wind shear is to avoid it entirely. However,

if wind shear is unavoidable, certain procedures must be followed.
• Landing in decreasing headwind - if the headwind decreases, this

also decreases lift. This means that the
aircraft descends at a higher slope angle
• Landing in increasing headwind - if the headwind increases, this

also increases lift. This means descending at a reduced slope angle.
543
Wind Shear and
Actions required to avoid flying into wind shear
• Take-off in decreasing headwind - if the headwind decreases,

this also decreases lift and the rate of climb.
• Take-off in increasing headwind - if the headwind

increases, this also increases lift and the rate of climb.
544
Wind Shear and
Lateral wind shear
• Increased crosswinds - if the crosswind increases and the

original crab angle is maintained, the aeroplane
will drift from its intended course and away from the wind.
• Reduction of crosswind - if the crosswind decreases and the

original crab angle is maintained, the angle is
too strong and the aeroplane will drift from its intended course
into the wind.
545
Wind Shear and
Procedures required in the event of wind shear
If wind shear occurs and it is detected at an early stage, pilots must be

vigilant and act in accordance with established
standard procedures.
It is important to note the following, depending on the phase of flight.
Take-off/initial climb:
• Know various standard values for pitch angle, climb rate, speed
etc..;
546
Procedures required in the event of wind
shear…cont’d
• Know and apply the pitch angle that applies to the "All-Engine"
take-off, so there are no reduced values;
• Normal and non-reduced rotation;
• Check all "Flight Director" commands;
• Minimize the reduction of pitch angle;
• Monitor all vertical flight path indicators and call out

deviations (PNF);
• Know the procedure to restore the flight path when entering 547
wind shear (downbursts).
shear…cont’d
Approach/landing:
• Know all the standard values for pitch, descent rate,

speed, thrust settings. etc..;
• Check all "Flight Director" commands;
• Avoid large variations in thrust, particularly reductions:
• Monitor all vertical flight path indicators and call out

deviations (PNF):
• Know the procedure to restore the flight path when

entering wind shear (downbursts). 548
shear…cont’d
Take precautionary measures when wind shear is
suspected
If wind shear is suspected, certain precautionary measures must be
taken. These precautionary measures apply
either to take-offs or landings and are conducted separately.
Precautionary measures during take-off :
• Apply "Maximum Rated Take-Off Thrust" as the throttle
setting;
• Use the longest appropriate runway;
• Use the recommended flap settings/stages;
• Increase the approach speed;
• Do not use of the Flight Director in "Speed referenced"
mode. 549
shear…cont’d
Precautionary measures during approach and landing:
• Stabilize the approach flight at 1,000 ft above ground

level;
• Minimize thrust variations, in particular any thrust
reductions;
• Use the most suitable runway;
• Use the recommended flap settings/stages;
• Increase the approach speed;
• Use the autopilot during the approach.
550
shear…cont’d
Effects of a strong downdraft
 Shortly before an aircraft enters a downdraft, the headwind

will increase and the increased lift will cause the aircraft to
climb.
 Once you have flown into the actual downdraft, the headwind
will suddenly decrease, as will the lift, and this will cause the
aircraft to descend rapidly.
 In addition, downbursts are followed by strong downward

winds (downdraft) that can push the aircraft down.
551
shear…cont’d
Measures required in the event of a downburst
• After lift-off (during take-off) or during the approach:

• The required thrust or maximum thrust must be set
without hesitation;
• The pitch angle is increased to 15° or higher if
necessary;
• The stick shaker must also be carefully monitored;
• Otherwise the current configuration must be
maintained.
552
shear…cont’d
At take-off on the runway:
• If this occurs before V 1 the take-off must be aborted;

• The required thrust, or maximum thrust must be set
without hesitation, if maximum take-off thrust has not
yet been selected;
• The aircraft is rotated to a pitch angle of 15° or higher
if necessary;
• The previously discussed procedures should then be
followed.
553
Microburst
Microbursts are a special form of downburst.
They are a very compact and concentrated form that usually

occurs in conjunction with thunderstorms.
They can cause downdrafts of up to 4,000 ft/min and wind shears

of up 100 kt.
Prior to entry into a microburst, the headwind will increase

suddenly. This sudden increase may cause an increase in the lAS-
display, and also an increase in lift (due to sudden increase in the
angle of attack).
554
Microburst…cont’d
The aircraft then climbs above the intended glide path.
Downward corrections should be made very carefully, because

the headwinds are followed by a strong downdraft and then a
tailwind.
If too much downward pitch is applied, the consequences can

be catastrophic.
555
Wake Turbulence
 Those who fly small single-engine aircraft frequently to and
from large airports will be clearly aware of the practical
relevance of staying well clear of large aircraft like a Boeing
747 when they take off or land.
 Wake turbulence is a phenomenon that should be avoided at

all times. It's not just something you would want to get a nice
photo shot of.
 Knowing how to cope with wake turbulence effectively

requires a sound knowledge of how it is caused and, more
importantly, how it can propagate.
556
Wake Turbulence…cont’d
Cause
 According to the ICAO, wake turbulence is defined as the

effect that arises from rotating air masses generated behind
the wing tips of large aircraft.
 Additionally, there is also the "wake vortex". In English, the

term “wake turbulence" denotes the turbulence that forms
behind an aircraft as it passes through the air.
 When the term wake vortices" or "wing-tip vortices" is used,

this generally relates to wake turbulence.
557
Relevant parameters
Certain factors have a significant effect on the intensity and/or

duration of the wake turbulence. Due care should
therefore be taken.
Wake turbulence is at its strongest when an aircraft is:

• HEAVY or SUPER;
• Slow (during take-off and landing);
• A "clean configuration" is when the landing gear and
flaps are retracted.
As mentioned above, light winds (up to 5 kt) are regarded as being
particularly dangerous in combination with wake turbulence and wing
tip vortices, as these may cause the vortices to remain almost
558
stationary on the runway.
Actions to be taken at intersections and during take-off and

landing
we need to distinguish between take-offs, landings. various

other situations on runway intersections and parallel
runways.
Principal procedure
Offset lift-off point
Wake turbulence first occurs when lift is generated. When
taking off behind another aircraft that generates dangerous
wake turbulence for one's own aircraft, a lift-off point
(rotation) must be chosen that is in front of the lift-off point of
559
the preceding aircraft.
Offset touch-down point
 That which applies to take-offs also applies to landings.
 When landing behind another aircraft that generates

dangerous wake turbulence for one's own aircraft, a
touch-down point must be chosen that is behind that of
the preceding aircraft.
 Ideally, one should seek to maintain a flight path somewhat

above and upwind of the preceding
aircraft.
560
 This prevents the risk of wake turbulence as wake turbulence

sinks and does not rise.
 In addition, when approaching at a higher slope angle, the

touch-down point will obviously be at a more or less greater
distance along the length of the runway.
561
Crosswind awareness
 In crosswind situations, the wind "shifts" the vortices in the

direction of the prevailing crosswind.
 This is why a pilot should fly on the windward side of the

previous aircraft, i.e. to the right of the flight path in a
crosswind from the right. Of course, this is only possible
during VFR flights.
 Light crosswinds (of up to 5 kt) can therefore cause the wake

to remain stationary for some time on the runway.
 Pilots of small aircraft must be particularly vigilant when such

562
wind conditions occur.
Separation
The above procedures cannot always be ensured in the case of

IFR traffic because of visibility restrictions.
Therefore, separation should be observed more in terms of time

intervals or distances.
Landing
Separations during landings are observed in terms of time
intervals or distance between one aircraft and another
563
If a control radar is available in the approach zone, separation
is based on distance.
564
Separation is based on predefined time-intervals if no radar is

available.
565
Take-off
Separation during take-offs is also based on time-intervals or
distance.
If radar is available in the departure zone, separation is based on
the same parameters as landings (distance).
If no radar is available, separation is based on time-intervals.
566
The following tables are used, depending on the situation between the departing aircraft.
Take-off on the same runway or on the same runway with displaced threshold.
567
Take-off on the same runway but the second aircraft takes off at another runway
intersection (intersection take-off).
568
Security (Unlawful Events)
 That hijackers or bombs can cause considerable damage,

was known long before 11.09.2001.
 Previous bomb attacks , like the one that occurred over

Lockerbie, show how important security can be to aviation.
569
Security…cont’d
Relevant terms that are related to security
Aircraft security check
An aircraft to which passengers may have had access must be

subjected to a "safety inspection".
This entails thorough inspection of the aircraft interior and cargo

compartment for the presence of suspicious objects, weapons,
bombs or other dangerous substances and devices.
570
Security…cont’d
Screening
This is the investigation of a person or object for the presence of
firearms, bombs, explosive material or any other dangerous
objects and materials that could be used to commit a criminal
offence.
Various technical means or otherresources can be used to

conduct screening (e.g. body scanners, baggage scanners etc..).
Screening is a form of security check that all passengers are

required to undergo before being permitted to board an aircraft.
571
Security…cont’d
Security
Within the context of aviation, this term relates to security and

the prevention of crime in air traffic (whether on the ground or in
the air).
572
Security…cont’d
Security restricted area
These are areas of restricted access or buildings at an airport that

are designated as areas of high risk and require much more
stringent security measures to be observed than is normally the
case.
These areas usually include departure areas, airport ramps and

aprons and all areas where controlled baggage and cargo are
stored.
573
Security…cont’d
Unidentified baggage
• Under normal circumstances, baggage must be verifiable as
being assigned to a particular passenger.
• Therefore baggage is provided with a label or sticker when

checked in by a passenger.
• This enables the baggage to be associated with a particular

passenger.
• Unidentified baggage is therefore any piece of baggage (with

or without baggage label) which remains unclaimed or which
574
cannot be assigned to a particular passenger.
Security…cont’d
Unidentified baggage…cont’d
Accordance with ICAO Annex 17, it must be the primary objective of
each Member State ;
 to ensure the safety of passengers, crew, ground personnel and

the general public and to protect them against crime.
This requires each Member State

 to develop and establish an appropriate organization or agency
and establish regulations and procedures that protect aviation in
the respective state against crime and unlawful acts, taking into
account safety , efficiency and regulations.
575
Security…cont’d
Unidentified baggage…cont’d
In addition to ensuring safety and security, such authorities or

organizations must able ;
• to respond to threats appropriately and quickly (appropriate

procedures must be in place to ensure this).
• in addition, ICAO Annex 17 recommends that security-

related information be adequately protected.
576
Use of SSR
The use of the transponder (SSR) provides both crew and ATS
with a particularly effective means to communicate
without the use of radio in the event that an unlawful act such as
kidnapping etc.. occurs on board an aircraft.
Responsibility of the commander
The crew (and therefore also the commander) should

endeavor to inform the appropriate air traffic control
services of the facts relating to the unlawful act, kidnapping
etc.. on board the aircraft.
577
Use of SSR…cont’d
In addition, the crew shall endeavor not only to notify the air
traffic control services of the facts relating to such unlawful
acts, but also to report any respective deviations from the
flight plan.
Of course, this can and should only be the case if the

situation is absolutely safe.
These messages (codes) enable the air traffic control

services to be alerted and to prioritize flights and to inform or
578
re-route other aircraft operating in the vicinity.
Use of SSR…cont’d

Transponder code
A 7700- General emergency

A 7600 - RCF
A 7500 - Hijacking(Unlawful interference)
Seven Seven - Pray to Heaven

Seven Six - Radio needs Fix
Seven Five - Man with Knife
579
Security (Unlawful Events)
If the flight crew is unable to fly to the planned destination
aerodrome. the last assigned altitude and course, as instructed by air
traffic control, must be maintained.
If this is not possible and there is no contact with air traffic control,
the following procedure shall apply:
• Attempt to broadcasting on VHF frequencies and or the VHF
emergency frequency;
• Continue the flight in accordance with alternate aerodrome
procedures;
• If any of the procedures above are not feasible, the following
flight levels, which deviate from normal IFR flight levels, must be
flown:
 500ft in areas with a vertical separation of 1,000ft;
 1,000ft in areas with a vertical separation of 2,000ft. 580
Security (Unlawful Events)…
cont’d
 The respective air traffic control authority may request the
crew to confirm code 7500.
 If possible, confirmation must be made by radio.
 If there is no response to that confirmation request, ATC

shall assume that this means this the code is confirmed and
that the code has been correctly set.
 This takes into account cases in which the crew unable

to respond by radio or is under serious threat.
581
cont’d
OPS Subpart S - Security
 OPS 1 also specifies several additional rules and regulations
regarding security.
 These relate primarily to personal training, event reporting and
checklists.
 An operator must establish, maintain and conduct approved

training programs that enable the operator's crew members to
take appropriate action to prevent acts of unlawful interference if
such events should occur.
 This applies to all crew members, i.e. both flight crew and cabin
582
crew.
cont’d
Following an unlawful event or act of unlawful interference on

board an aeroplane the commander or, in his/her
absence the operator, must;
 submit, without delay, a report of such an act to the

designated local authority and to the authority in the state
of the operator.
583
cont’d
 An operator shall ensure that there is a checklist on board of the
procedures to be followed in accordance with OPS I, in search of
a bomb or explosive device and/or concealed weapons if the
suspicion exists that the aeroplane may be the object of an act of
unlawful interference.
 The checklist must be supported by guidance on the appropriate

course of action to be taken and information on the least-risk
bomb location specific to the aeroplane.
584
Emergency and Precautionary Landings
 If, for whatever reason, an emergency or precautionary

landing is required, clear and well-defined procedures are of
great importance.
 These can generally be found in the operations manual.
585
Emergency and Precautionary Landings…
cont’d
Precautionary landing
A precautionary landing is when the crew decides to land in

order to prevent an impending emergency.
The emergency has therefore not yet occurred at time of the

decision and the landing.
The reasons for initiating a precautionary landing include

weather, loss of instruments, the failure of engines, pilot health
problems.
586
Emergency and Precautionary
Landings…cont’d
Emergency landing
 An actual emergency has arisen only when a MAYDAY call is

made.
 An emergency landing is conducted when crew and passengers

are put at considerable risk and an immediate is required, or if
the emergency situation "forces" the flight crew to conduct an
immediate landing .
 An emergency landing that is not a forced landing can be quite

frightful to passengers. Because an immediate landing is
required, this is designated as an emergency.
587
cont’d
Forced landing
 A forced landing is a specific kind of landing.
 A forced landing is one in which a specific situation forces

the crew to land.
 This can be the case, for example, if all engines fail or if a

major failure occurs on board of the aircraft rendering
the aircraft no longer airworthy.
 If the landing can be performed safely, it is called a "safe

forced landing". 588
cont’d
Ditching
Ditching is the landing on water of an aircraft that is not normally
equipped for landing on water.
Ditching procedure
The procedure for ditching varies as this largely depends on the

type of aircraft concerned.
589
cont’d
Basic points to be noted for ditching.
• Landings should be performed parallel to the waves, when the wave
motion is at its strongest, otherwise into the wind;
• Conduct the landing without the landing gear deployed (belly landing);
• Land at the lowest possible rate of descent, since estimating the height
above water is always very difficult:
• Land with both wings parallel and straight to avoid pitching over;
• A slightly pitched up three-point landing is ideal to prevent overturning;
• If the aircraft is equipped with a "ditch mode", this should be selected

just before ditching - this closes off all outflow valves and other
openings, thus preventing the aircraft from filling with water:
590
• After ditching, conduct the evacuation procedure as quickly as possible.
591
Procedure for precautionary landing
 This type of landing also depends on the aircraft in question.
 Further details can be found in the flight manual or

operator's manual.
 We will now discuss several fundamentally important issues.
 Select an appropriate place to land, preferably an airport or

aerodrome.
 Inform air traffic control of your intentions. Use the preferred

emergency frequency 121.5 MHz
592
Procedure for precautionary landing…cont’d
 Inform passengers of the impending landing and the safety

precautions they should take.
 Stabilize your approach and perform a landing specially

adapted to the intended landing site.
 If you are unable to land at an aerodrome, fly over the

selected landing site once again before you land, and
conduct an "airfield traffic pattern".
593
Decision factors for an emergency or
precautionary landing
If you opt for a precautionary or emergency landing, several decisions
need to be made depending on the location selected for the intended
landing.
Factors that play a significant role include:
The remaining aircraft technology and equipment available to you
(engines, landing gear, etc..);
• Resources and facilities available at the selected location;
• Weather;
• Terrain;
• Remaining crew (e.g. due to incapacitation of one of the pilots);
• The configuration required to land the aeroplane at the
aerodrome or selected landing area;
• Possibility of a missed approach if the aircraft is still airworthy.
594
precautionary landing…cont’d
Cause
The actual reasons for a precautionary or emergency landing can

be as varied as the different types of aircraft there are.
Below are some examples of each type of emergency or

precautionary landing.
Ditching
• Failure of all engines;
• Structural damage;
• Other reasons which prevent the continuation of the
flight towards land.
595
Emergency landing and forced landing
• Heart attack or other comparable health problems in

passengers:
• Failure of all engines;
• Acute fuel problems;
• Thunderstorm;
• Extreme turbulence;
• Severe health problems of both pilots.
596
Precautionary landing
• Weather;
• Flight instrument failure;
• Failure of engine units (but not all);
• Minor health problems of the pilots that, in view of
general safety. necessitate a precautionary landing in
order to avoid complete "loss" of pilot control.
597
Passenger information
The flight crew is always trained to cope with such events.
Passengers, on the other hand, will be more or less unprepared,

which is why they must always be informed about the
procedures that need to be followed.
598
Passenger briefing prior to the
emergency or precautionary landing
 Before a precautionary landing, emergency landing or a ditching
are performed, it is important that the passengers
are informed of the impending situation and the actions and
measures that need to be taken.
 Passengers must also be informed regarding the appropriate

measures and actions to be taken during evacuation since a
passenger briefing after the landing might no longer be possible.
 The exact details are given in the operations manual.

599
Passenger briefing prior to the emergency or
• The commander will brief the co-pilot extensively and then call
the responsible cabin attendant (purser , senior cabin attendant)
to the cockpit;
• The co-pilot will then inform the purser accordingly on the

impending situation and the required actions;
• The purser is required to inform the rest of the crew;
• The first announcement to the passengers will generally be

made by the commander - this includes basic information
relating to the current situation and the further procedures to
be followed;
600
Passenger briefing prior to the emergency or
Any further information to the passengers is given by the cabin
crew. This must include:
• Instructions on how to put on and activate life jackets (if
required);
• The safety position to be taken and the announcement
"Brace Brace";
• Fastening the seatbelts;
• Adjustment of seats and tables to upright position;
• Stowage of unsecured items;
• The precise location of the emergency exits;
• Opening the emergency exits;
• Activation of the emergency evacuation chutes.
601
Actions to be taken after ditching
 After an emergency or precautionary landing is performed,

there are several issues both the flight crew and cabin crew
must consider.
 The exact procedures to be followed are set out in the

respective flight manual or operations manual.
 From the perspective of the flight crew, is important to shut

down the engines and to go through the appropriate checklists.
602
Actions to be taken after ditching…cont’d
 In addition, it is essential to ensure that the ELT is activated

so that rescue teams can locate the landing site if the
emergency landing is not performed at an aerodrome.
 From the perspective of the cabin crew, it is important to

coordinate the evacuation and direct passengers to the
relevant evacuation routes.
603
Evacuation
The evacuation is just as important as the landing itself.
Surviving an emergency landing but being unable to

evacuate passengers effectively would have tragic consequences.
604
Evacuation…cont’d
Initiating an evacuation
 The aeroplane must have come to a complete standstill and

all engines must be shut down before the actual evacuation
can take place.
 This ensures that the evacuation can be conducted in a safe

manner.
 Passengers could otherwise be injured or killed after exiting

the aircraft by rotating propellers or jet exhaust from the
engine. 605
Evacuation…cont’d
Evacuation procedure
 The exact procedure for an evacuation can be found in Section 8

of the operations manual.
 Of course, these procedures form part the initial and recurrent

training programs that the crew receive before and after being
deployed on a specific type of aeroplane.
606
CS25 requirements for evacuations
procedures
 The larger the aeroplane, the more precautions must be taken
in the design and planning of the aircraft, as well as the related
procedures.
 The CS25 is a series of approval regulations for large

aeroplanes published by the EASA.
 These regulations include several requirements regarding the

evacuation of passenger aeroplanes and for any equipment on
board related to evacuation.
607
The regulations set out the following requirements:
• Each crew and passenger area must have emergency means

and exits to allow rapid evacuation. These means must allow
rapid evacuation with the landing gear extended as well as with
the landing gear retracted (the difference here being the height
between the exits and the ground).
• For aeroplanes having a seating capacity of more than 44

passengers, it must be shown that the maximum seating
capacity, including the number of crew members can be
evacuated from the aeroplane within 90 seconds.
608
Rapid Fuel Dumping
Initially, fuel dumping might sound rather odd, because fuel is actually what "feeds"
the power of the engines.
However, there are certain grounds for dumping a portion of aeroplane's fuel.
609
Rapid Fuel Dumping…cont’d
Safety aspects
 Emergencies and other urgent situations may call for the

reduction of the mass of an aeroplane, in order to meet the
requirements of the maximum landing mass.
 The maximum take-off mass of larger, modem aircraft is

often higher than their maximum landing mass.
 The only means of reducing mass is by jettisoning fuel.
610
Precautionary measures when jettisoning fuel
If the fuel jettisoning procedure is to be carried out in controlled airspace, the

following precautionary measures must be taken:
 The flight crew must inform air traffic control of its intention to
jettison fuel;
 The flight crew must coordinate with ATC the following:
 Route to be flown;
• If possible, this route should be clear of cities and towns;
• Preferably over water;
• Away from areas where thunderstorms have been reported
or are expected.
 The flight levels to be used should be not less than 6000ft;
 The duration of the fuel dumping procedure. This will depend on the
amount of fuel to be dumped.
611
Requirements of a fuel jettisoning system

 According to the EASA CS25 certification guidelines,
aeroplanes must meet certain minimum criteria in terms of
climb performance during a go-around procedure.
 Most large aircraft have a considerably higher maximum

takeoff mass than their maximum landing mass.
 Climb performance during a go-around is related to the

maximum landing mass.
612
 This means that if an aeroplane takes off with a maximum take-

off mass and an engine fails, the mass must be significantly
reduced in order to reach the maximum landing mass for climb
performance during a go-around.
 Therefore, in accordance with EASA, a fuel jettisoning system

must be installed on each aeroplane unless it is shown that the
aeroplane meets the climb requirements at maximum take-off
weight, less the actual or computed weight of fuel necessary for a
15-minute flight with the need to jettison fuel.
613
Timeline for fuel jettisoning
If a fuel jettisoning system is required, it must be capable of

jettisoning enough fuel within 15 minutes
614
Carriage of Dangerous Goods
Because certain substances and goods can be classified as

dangerous due to their nature, special precautions and
regulations apply in aviation with regard to the carriage of such
goods and substances.
615
Carriage of Dangerous Goods…cont’d
Dangerous goods are divided into a total of 9 classes.
616
Classes of dangerous goods
617
Carriage of Dangerous Goods…
cont’d
Definitions
Dangerous goods
Dangerous goods are materials or items with hazardous properties

which, if not properly controlled, present a potential hazard to
human health and safety , infrastructure and/or their means of
transport and can be found in the List
of Dangerous Goods in the Technical Instructions of the ICAO, or
which are classified as hazardous or dangerous
according to these instructions.
618
Dangerous goods accident
An incident during the transportation of dangerous goods by air, in

which people were fatally or seriously injured, or severe property
damage was incurred.
619
cont’d
Dangerous goods incident
An incident that occurs during the transport of dangerous goods

by air, which is not classified as an accident. In
this case, the incident may also occur on the ground and relate to:
• Damage of property;
• Injuries;
• Fire;
• Fuel or radiation leaks;
• Events which may seriously jeopardize the safety of
the aircraft or persons.
620
cont’d
Exemption
This is a kind of exemption, issued by an aviation authority. It

certifies an exemption from the provisions of lCAO Annex 18.
Incompatible
Incompatible describes a class of dangerous goods that may lead to

the propagation of heat, gas or the like if mixed
or come into contact with other substances.
Packaging
Containers, receptacles or similar devices having a contaminating or
protective function. 621
UN number
 A four-digit number for each hazardous substance (group) or any
other dangerous substance or item specified by an expert team of
the United Nations (UN).
 As already mentioned, detailed regulations and precautionary

measures regarding the transport of dangerous goods and substances
are contained in the Technical Instructions (Technical Instructions)
of ICAO Doc 9284.
 lf an in-flight emergency occurs the commander or pilot in

command shall, as soon as the situation permits, inform the
appropriate air traffic services unit of any dangerous goods carried
622
as cargo on board the aeroplane.
Technical instructions (ICAO Doc 9284)
 As opposed to ICAO Annex 18, ICAO Doc 9284 is much more

comprehensive.
 The document contains information about the limitations on

board an aircraft, issues regarding the training of personnel for
the proper handling of dangerous goods, classifications, a
comprehensive list of all substances classified as hazardous or
dangerous, and instructions and regulations relating to the
shipping of such goods and items.
623
OPS Subpart R - Transport of dangerous goods by air

In addition to the ICAO documents and their regulations, there
also regulations and additional procedures prescribed by the EU
that are described in Subpart R of OPS I.
624
Operator approval
An operator must first seek approval from the relevant authority

before being permitted to transport dangerous goods.
Before the issue of an approval for the transport of dangerous goods,

the operator must satisfy the authority that ;
 adequate training has been given,
 all relevant documents (e.g. for ground handling, aeroplane
handling training) contain information and instructions on
dangerous goods, and
 that there are procedures in place to ensure the safe handling
of dangerous goods at all stages of air transport.
625
Exemptions
Certain articles and substances that would otherwise be classed as

dangerous goods but which are not subject
the regulations of OPS 1 are excluded from the provisions,
for example, when carried for use in flight or when they

form part of the permanent equipment of the aeroplane.
626
The detailed reasons for these exemptions are;
 Items and goods placed on board with the approval of the

operator to provide, during flight, medical aid to a patient
 Gas cylinders that must have been manufactured specifically

for the purpose of containing and transporting a particular gas;
 Medications and other medical matter that must be under the
control of trained personnel during the time which they are in use in
the aeroplane;
 Equipment containing wet cell batteries that must be kept and, when
necessary secured, in an upright position to prevent spillage of the
electrolyte.
627
 Items and goods required for the safety and health of
passengers and crew
• First-aid equipment;
• Flares and flare guns;
• Fire extinguishers
 Items and goods required for the operation of the
aeroplane, for example, for the purpose of flight
safety or catering
• Dry ice for the purpose of food refrigeration
 Transportation in hand luggage
• This only applies to specific goods. In general, all such
items, articles and goods are declared to the airline
operator before commencement of a flight.
628
Packaging
The acceptance and the transportation of dangerous goods are only

permitted if such goods are packaged in accordance with the ICAO
Doc 9284 Technical Instructions and meet the requirements therein.
629
Designations and markings

All designations and markings of dangerous goods, including
the dangerous goods transport documents, must be rendered in
the English language.
Other languages may be required in each individual country or

state and copies in these languages must also be provided.
630
cont’d
Transport document
Acceptance of dangerous goods is only permitted if such goods

are accompanied by a dangerous goods transport
document.
This document must be in English, in addition to any other

languages required.
631
cont’d
Acceptance of dangerous goods
 It is the responsibility of the shipper to ensure that all required

documentation is present and that goods are packaged in
accordance with the requirements.
 The operator must ensure that acceptance of the packages,

over packs and freight containers containing dangerous goods
is in accordance with the acceptance procedures in the
technical instructions and that all relevant details are checked
(known as the “acceptance check").
 Acceptance of the load would otherwise be rejected.

632
cont’d
Inspection prior to loading
In order to ensure that only articles and dangerous goods that are
safely and properly packaged are transported, the operator must
ensure that:
 Packages and containers are inspected for evidence of leakage or damage
immediately prior to loading. If this is the case, then such consignments may
not be transported.
 An operator must also ensure that there are no signs of leakage of and damage
to the dangerous goods contained therein. If this is the case, then such
consignments may not be transported.
 Any package of dangerous goods found on an aeroplane and which

appears to be damaged or leaking must be removed or arrangements
made for its removal by an appropriate authority or organization. 633
cont’d
Transport of dangerous goods on passenger and

cargo aircraft
Certain rules and restrictions also apply with regard to the

transport of dangerous goods in specific areas of an
aircraft and on certain categories (types) of aircraft.
634
cont’d
Aircraft cabin and cockpit
Dangerous goods must not be transported in a cabin occupied by

passengers or in the cockpit, except when appropriate exemptions
from the dangerous goods regulations exist.
Freight compartments
Dangerous goods must always be loaded, stowed, secured and

segregated from other dangerous when transported on an
aeroplane.
There are often segregated cargo compartments on some
aircraft for the carriage of dangerous goods. 635
cont’d
Cargo aircraft or passenger aircraft
 Specific dangerous goods must be labelled "Cargo Aircraft

Only" marked.
 Packages of dangerous goods bearing this label must be

carried exclusively on cargo aircraft.
636
Accidents and incidents involving dangerous
goods
 If an incident or accident occurs, the operator is required to report this to the

appropriate authority in the state where the accident or incident occurred.
 The first report must be dispatched in an appropriate manner (e.g. by email ,

fax, telephone) within 72 hours of the event unless exceptional circumstances
prevent this.
 The first report of such an incident or accident must include the details that
are known at that time.
 If necessary a subsequent report must be presented if any further information

becomes available that was not available at the time of the first report.
637
Accidents and incidents involving
dangerous goods…cont’d
If a report has been made verbally, written confirmation must be
submitted without delay.
The first report and any subsequent report must contain the
following data that are relevant to the incident:
• Date of the incident or accident or the discovery of

undeclared or wrongly declared dangerous goods;
• Place, flight number and date of flight;
• Description of the goods and the reference number of
the air waybill, pouch, baggage tag, flight ticket, etc..:
• Correct shipping name (including the technical name,
if applicable) and UN/ID number, if known;
638
• Class or division and any other subsidiary risks;
Accidents and incidents involving dangerous
goods…cont’d
 Type of packaging and packaging identification;

 Quantity;
 Name and title of the shipper, passenger etc..;
 Any other relevant details;
 Suspected cause of the incident or accident;
 Measures taken;
 Any other reporting action taken;
 Name, title, address and telephone number of the person
making the report;
 Copies of all relevant documents, as well as photographs.
639
Non-declared or miss-declared
goods
 In addition to accidents and incidents, the operator of the relevant
aviation authority in the state in which the incident
has occurred, must report undeclared or miss-declared
dangerous goods discovered in cargo or passenger baggage.
 The first report must be dispatched in an appropriate manner (e.g. by

e-mail, fax, telephone) within 72 hours of the event unless exceptional
circumstances prevent this and must include the details that are known
at that time.
 If necessary, a subsequent report must be presented if any further

information becomes available, which was not available at the time of
the first report. 640
Contaminated runways
The following contaminations are known and are indicated in the
SNOWTAM.
• Damp;
• Wetness or Patches of Water;
• Rime or Frost-covered;
• Dry snow;
• Wet snow;
• Slush;
• Ice;
• Compacted or rolled snow;
• Frozen ruts or ridges.
641
Estimated surface friction or
friction coefficient
 One factor that is significantly affected by contamination is the braking
action on the runway.
 This will vary depending on the particular type of contamination

concerned.
 There are different ways to indicate the braking action or

estimated surface friction.
 In principle, we distinguish between an actual measurement of the

braking action- the "friction coefficient"- and an estimated surface
642
friction.
Estimated surface friction or
friction coefficient…cont’d
As the name suggests, the friction coefficient is actually measured
using certain aids.
If a measurement is not possible, this should be estimated on the

basis of various criteria (estimates).
Then the value of the "Estimated Surface Friction" is used.
643
Friction coefficient
644
Estimated braking action
(surface friction)
645
Hydroplaning
Contaminated Runways Not only snow but also other

contaminants, such as water, can affect runway conditions, in
addition to reducing the braking action.
This also includes aquaplaning.
646
Types of hydroplaning
Hydroplaning is not simply hydroplaning. There are three

different types of hydroplaning. These are listed as follows:
Viscous hydroplaning
Viscous hydroplaning occurs on largely smooth or smooth acting

surfaces.
It is characterized in that the rolling or sliding tire is unable to

displace the last thin film of water in the tire footprint area.
True viscous hydroplaning only occurs on very smooth runway
surfaces. 647
Dynamic hydroplaning
If more water is on the surface, the tire needs to displace this forwards and to the sides.
A resistant pressure is formed in front of the tire footprint area where the tires come
into contact with the surface.
This pressure, which is equal to the square of the speed and is proportional to the
density of the water, builds up an increasing resistance
to displacement by the tires, resulting in the formation of a wedge of water at the
contact surface beneath the tire that, at some point, equals the load of the tires.
At a certain water depth and speed, there is no longer any contact

between the tires and the runway. In this condition, the tires can no longer contribute to
directional control and the braking action is nil. The tire is now exposed to full
dynamic hydroplaning.
648
Reverted rubber skidding
Reverted rubber skidding or reverted rubber hydroplaning is a special

form of viscous hydroplaning in which a chemical reaction occurs
between the tire components and the water, leading to a complete loss
of tire friction.
This form of hydroplaning occurs only very rarely, but is extremely

dangerous, as the described reaction continues
until the aircraft comes to a complete stop.
649
Hydroplaning speed
As explained in the section above on dynamic hydroplaning, from a

certain speed there is no longer any contact between
the tires and the ground.
The tire floats entirely on the water surface. Directional control and
braking action by the wheels and tires is no longer possible.
The aerodynamic control surfaces (e.g. rudder) of the aircraft can be

used to maintain controllability, provided that the aircraft is still
travelling at an adequate speed.
The dangerous speed can be calculated. To do this, a distinction must

650
be drawn between tires that spin and tires that don't spin.
Hydroplaning speed…cont’d
Spin-down tire
When the tires spin, e.g. during the take off run, the speed for
total hydroplaning is calculated using the following
Formula
Spin-up tire
If the tires do not turn, the critical speed is lower. The

corresponding formula is
651
Hydroplaning speed…cont’d
This is especially critical during the landing. The tires do not

usually turn and only begin to turn when they come into contact
with the ground.
Until they begin to turn, the critical velocity is lower and the
aeroplane therefore
remains uncontrollable for a longer period of time.
This is why a firm touchdown is required on wet runways and

why it is also more important than passenger comfort.
652
Procedure
Different situations require different procedures to be taken,
which we will not discuss here in detail, as they can vary from
one aircraft type to another.
Most important of all is that pilots know where to obtain this

procedural information.
653
Special wind limitations
Take-offs and landings on contaminated runways in combination

with crosswinds present additional challenges.
If an approach is made at a crab angle and the body of the aircraft

is not aligned with the runway, this will cause the
aircraft to adopt a yaw orientation with respect to the runway at
touch-down.
Nor would the wheels of the aircraft be properly aligned with the
direction of the runway.
654
Normal procedures
Procedures for take-offs and landings on contaminated runways

can be found in the Operations Manual under section- B -
Normal procedures.
Performance values
Performance values and operating minima for take-offs

and landings on contaminated runways can be found in
the operations manual (Part 8 -Performance).
655
SNOWTAM
A SNOWTAM is a message describing the conditions of the

runways, taxiways and apron at an aerodrome.
SNOWTAMS are only issued during winter periods.
A SNOWTAM is valid for 24 hours, but there are rules stating

that a new SNOWTAM must be issued sooner if significant
changes occur.
656
SNOWTAM…cont’d
Contamination and braking action in the SNOWTAM

Every pilot must be able to read (i.e. decode) a SNOWTAM
message, particularly with regard to the contamination
of the runways and the braking action on the runway.
The warnings and notifications found in SNOWTAMS are

explained in the following sections with the use of examples.
There are basically two formats of SNOWTAM:

One in SNOTAM format and another in the METAR format.
Both are described below.

657
ECARAS Part 8: Operations
ECARSAS part 8 requirements related to flight
crew
Part 8 prescribes the requirements for:
(1) Operations conducted by flight crewmember certified in Ethiopia while
operating aircraft registered in Ethiopia.
(2) Operations of foreign aircraft registered in another State operated by
AOC holders issued by the Authority.
(3) Operations of aircraft within Ethiopia by flight crew or AOC holders of
another State.
(b) For operations outside of Ethiopia, all Ethiopia pilots and operators shall
comply with these requirements unless compliance would result in a
violation of the laws of the State in which the operation is conducted.
658
ECARAS Part 8: Operations…
cont’d
Difference of ECARAS part 8 from ICAO annex 6.
659
THE END
660
Prescribed aircraft lights
A fundamental part of many maintenance procedures is to

ensure the External lighting on the aircraft.
Each aircraft is required to meet certain minimum requirements

In order for the lights to be used.
661

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OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT

Commercial Air Transport

• At the end of the course trainees will be able

Air operator certificate (AOC). A certificate authorizing an

Take-off alternate. An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft

Destination alternate. An alternate aerodrome to which an aircraft

ETOPS en-route alternate. A suitable and appropriate alternate

Flight time — aeroplanes. The total time from the moment

Rest period. Any period of time on the ground during

 Generally , the ICAO Annex 6 part one is only applicable to

 The aeroplane operator must apply to the authority for

Compliance with laws, regulations and

 Operational responsibility lies with the operator, or a

 As a rule, this responsibility is delegated to the pilot in-

 The responsibility of certain parts may also be delegated

 In order to prevent accidents from occurring, ICAO

 SMS must be implemented in the member state and that a

An operator shall establish and maintain an accident

 The minimum requirement includes the presence and

 All documents and manuals have the same structure and

 Annex 6 provides clear guidelines for release of aircraft

 A maintenance release shall be completed and signed to

a) Basic details of the maintenance carried out including

b) Date on which maintenance was completed;

c) When applicable, the identity of the approved

d) The identity of the person or persons signing the release.

-Emit lights upwards and down wards.

-Longitudinal axis must be 140º.

An operator shall ensure that a flight will not be commenced

-The ground and/or water facilities available and

-The protection of the passengers, are adequate for the type of

 Subject to their published conditions of use, aerodromes

 The operator must ensure that all crew members can

 Generally the English language.

 Operating manuals must be in English.

 The only way to ensure safety-Language

• Established for a particular aircraft type by a/c designer

• Approved by the State of Design

• Contains items which are permitted to be unserviceable at

• Associated operating conditions, limitations and procedures

• Prepared by the operator

• In conformity with MMEL or

• more restrictive than the MMEL

 Established by the type designer

 Approved by the state of design

 Identifies any external parts which may be

 The associated operating limitations

 Designate a quality manager to monitor compliance with a

 The quality assurance programme and the appropriate

The objective of the programme is :

 To promote risk-awareness among all employees.

 Reporting systems and analysis of incidents , faults.

 To produce a flight data analysis for aircraft with an MTOM

 The system for reporting and analysis of incidents focus on the

 The system must also be capable of recording messages

 Additional crew members-Exercise their duties in the

-Who “ shuttles” from one location to other location to carryout

-They must not mistaken for flight attendants by passengers.

-The aim is to ensure safety and security.

 Ditching is forced landing of aircraft on water.

 Operation over water of an aircraft with a seating capacity

 To ensure that the aeroplane can reach a safe landing

 The precise regulations are either the distance that the

 An operator must take all necessary measures to ensure that