Electrical Measurements &

Instrumentation
PMMC
 Instrument Types/Classification
• Classification according to
– Function
• Ammeter, Voltmeter. Ohmmeter, wattmeter
– Construction
• Analog
– Passive
» Quantity being measured produces deflection
– Active
» Use external power supply to assist the movement
• Digital
 Instrument Types/Classification
• How measurement is made
– Absolute Instruments
• Measure in terms of fundamental units; mass, length and time. For
example Rayleigh current balance weighs the magnetic effect of a
current carrying coil in a balance. From that, current is calculated using
force and coil dimensions.
• Normally used in standards laboratory
– Secondary Instruments
• Instrument that display measured quantity on a scale or digital display.
– Comparison Instruments (also called null-type)
• Quantity to be measured is determined by comparing to a precisely
known quantity.
 Instrument Types/Classification
• Grades
– Industrial (/Field/Production) Grade
• Instruments for industrial use where environment
conditions are harsh and high reliability is required.
– Precision Grade:
• ±0.1 % to 1%
– Standard Grade
• Used in less demanding environment
 PMMC
Working Principle
• Force is experienced by a current-carrying
conductor (or coil) when placed in a magnetic
field.
• The direction of force can be seen using
Fleming’s left hand rule., where middle finger
shows direction of field, index finger shows
force direction and thumb points in the
direction of current
• There are three forces acting inside the
instrument
– Deflecting force (by induced field)
– Controlling force (Spiral Spring)
– Damping force (Eddy Current)
• Spring must
– be of non magnetic material so that deflecting force has
no effect on it
– Have low resistance because electrical connections are
made through it
• Eddy currents appear in the coil former due to
changing magnetic field (when coil moves)
and their magnetic field opposes the motion
• Without damping force the needle will
oscillate for sometime before settling.
 PMMC
Construction

• Jeweled-bearing or taut-
band suspensions
• Min Air gap for max flux
• Zero-position control to
move the end of spring
 PMMC
Equations

• The interaction between induced field and

Permanent Magnet field results in Torque
which causes Rotation of Needle
Force on each coil is
F=BlI
Total Force on N coils from both sides F=2BlIN
TD = 2BlINr = BlIND
• where B is the flux density of the radial
field, I is the current flowing in the coil, L is the
height of the coil,
D is the width of the coil, and N is the
number of turns in the coil
 PMMC
• If iron core is cylindrical and distance between core and
magnet is constant, then B=constant?.
So, TD=CI
• The Controlling torque is proportional to angle of
deflection
Tc= K Ө
At equilibrium both are equal
TD=TC
So,

I∝Ө
 Example
• The magnetic flux density in the air gap of a
PMMC instrument is 0.5 T. The length and
width of the coil are given as 1.20 cm and 2
cm, respectively. Calculate the number of
turns required to deflect a torque of 4.2 µNm
if the coil current is given as 100 mA.
 Example
• A PMMC instrument with a 300-turn coil has a
magnetic flux density in its air gaps of
B=200mT. The coil dimensions are d=2cm and
l= 1.5cm. Calculate the torque produced on
the coil for a current of 1mA, and determine
the controlling torque constant if the 1mA
current produces 40o deflection.
 DC Ammeter
• A PMMC can be used as a DC Ammeter and Voltmeter
• As PMMC gives full scale deflection on very low currents,
therefore a small resistance (shunt) is connected in
parallel to measure large currents
 DC Ammeter

Since

So,

m=
Exercise
Multi-Range Ammeter
Ayrton Shunt Ammeter
 Exercise

Shunt resistance will be much lower than coil resistance,

so ignored when in series with coil.
DC Voltmeter
Exercise
 Ohmmeter
Series Ohmmeter

• At Rx=0 Im=IFSD
• At Rx=ꚙ (open circuit), Im=0
• Intermediate values of Rx can be calculate for
0.4 FSD, 0.3 FSD , etc.
 Example

(c) Determine the error on 0.25FSD reading when battery voltage drops to 1.4V
(d) Determine new value of R1+Rm for the dropped voltage i.e. 1.4V
(e) Recalculate the error in Rx at 0.25 FSD.
 Ohmmeter
Zero-Adjust Series Ohmmeter
• This arrangement is more robust towards voltage
drop.

• If we short circuit Rx
Req = R1 + R2 || Rm
• The value of Rx which gives half scale deflection is
decided first during design. Rh
Since at Rx=0, meter shows full scale deflection
And at Rx=Rh, it shows HSD.
So at half scale deflection
Req = R1 + R2 || Rm = Rh.

At FSD, total current through the circuit is

It = V/Req = V/Rh

At HSD, total current through the circuit is

It = V/(Req+Rh) = V/(2Rh)

Now we find values of R2.

Assume Rx=0 so it should give FSD

R2 = Vm/I2 = (IFSDRm) / (It- IFSD ) = (IFSDRm) / (V/Rh - IFSD ) (1

Since,
Rh = R1 + R2 || Rm
So,
R1 = Rh – R2 || Rm (R1 >> R2 || Rm) (2
• For Recalculating R2 for new Voltage (battery
voltage drops). Rx=0.
Vm=IFSD*Rm (a
Itotal =(Vsource-Vm)/R1 (b
I2=Itotal-IFSD (c
R2=Vm/I2 (d
Substituting a), b), c) in (d

R2= = =

R2= (3
• Value of Rx when it is present in circuit
It = (Vsource-Vm)/(Rx+R1)
It= Im+I2 = Vm/Rm +Vm/R2
Equating the two
Vm/Rm +Vm/R2 = (Vsource – Vm)/(Rx+R1)
Rearranging
Rx=(Vsource-Vm) / (Vm/Rm+Vm/R2) - R1
Rx={(Vsource-ImRm) / (Im +ImRm/R2)} – R1 (4
Example
Example
 Example

• Design the following series ohmmeter for Rh = 1000

R1
50 Rz
1mA A
RX

Rm

• Tell Resistance at 0.5FSD

3V
• Give the scale error when measuring 0.5FSD with a low battery 10% drop
• The value of R2 to compensate for a 10% drop in battery voltage; and again
error measuring 0.5FSD with new R2
 Shunt Ohmmeter
• Unknown resistance Rx is connected in
parallel to meter
Derive equation for Rx ?
Exercise