MONITORING

IN
ANAESTHESIA
INTRODUCTION

 Monitoring is important to prevent anaethesia

complication
 Sophisticated monitor available,
 only to aid
 not to fully dependent on them
 Anaesthetist vigilance is the best
BASIC MONITORING- CLINICAL
MONITORING
1. Pulse rate
2. Color of skin
3. Blood pressure
4. Inflation of chest
5. Precordial and esophageal stethoscopy
6. Signs of sympathetic over activity
7. Urine output (>0.5ml/min)
 ADVANCE MONITORING-
INSTRUMENTAL MONITORIN
 Cardiovascular monitoring

Non - invasive Semi -

Invasive invasive
 1. Non invasive

Non invasive
ECG
blood pressure -
NIBP
1.ECG
Mandatory monitor to detect :

 Arrhythmia – lead II
 Ischemia – lead V5

 cardiac arrest.
2. NIBP
 Measure blood pressure at set intervals
automatically by automated oscillometery.

 Cuff size should cover 2/3 of arm

 Small cuff for children

 Too large (underestimate)
 Too small (over estimate)
TRANSESOPHAGEAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY
(TEE)

 Most sensitive to detect

any wall motion
abnormality
 ischemia ,
 valvular dysfunction,
 air embolism
 3. Invasive Monitoring

Invasive blood pressure- Central Venous

Pressure Monitoring - Pulmonary artery
IBP CVP catherization
1. IBP

 Required in patient mandates for beat to beat

monitoring
 Gold standard
 Accuracy
 measure the difference in IBP & NIBP not more than 5-
8mmHg
 Radial Artery
 Brachial Artery
 Femoral Artery
 Dorsalis Pedis Artery
 Allen’s Test
 Normal - <7s
 Borderline – 7-14s
 >15s – contraindicated
> CANNULATION COMPLICATION

 Arterial injury, spasm, distal ischemia

 Thrombosis, embolization

 Sepsis

 Tissue necrosis

 Fistula and aneurysm formation

 *prevention : continuous flush with/out heparin

2.CENTRAL VENOUS PRESSURE
MONITORING (CVP)
> INDICATION
 Major surgeries where large fluctuations in haemodynamics
are expected.
 Open heart surgeries.
 Fluid management in shock.
 As a venous access.
 Parenteral nutrition.
 Aspiration of air embolus.
 Cardiac pacing.
 Normal CVP is 3 to 10 cm of H20 (or 2-8 mmHg).
 In children CVP is 3 to 6 cm of H20.
 CVP more than 20 cm of H2O indicates right heart failure.
 >TECHNIQUE OF CVP CATHETERIZATION (THROUGH
INTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN)
Seldinger technique
1. Patient lies in Trendelenburg position – to decrease chance air embolism
2. The cannula with stylet is inserted at the tip of triangle formed by two
heads of sternomastoid and clavicle. The direction of needle should be slightly
lateral and towards the ipsilateral nipple.
3. Once the internal jugular vein is punctured. Stylet is removed and a J wire is
passed through cannula
4. Now the CVP catheter is railroad over the J wire
5. The tip of catheter should be at the junction of superior vena cava with right
atrium – 15 cm from entry point
> CVP IS INCREASED IN :

 Fluid overloading
 Congestive cardiac failure.

 Pulmonary embolism

 Cardiac tamponade

 Intermittent positive pressure ventilation with PEEP

 Constrictive pericarditis

 Pleural effusion

 Hemothorax

 Coughing and straining

 > CVP IS DECREASED IN :

 Hypovolemia and shock

 Venodilator

 Spinal / epidural anaesthesia

 General anesthesia – by causing vasodilatation

Low CVP + low BP= Hypovolemia

High CVP + low BP = pump failure
 X ray chest is performed to check the position of
catheter and to exclude pneumothorax

Complication
 Air embolism

 Thromboembolism

 Cardiac arrhymias

 Pneumothorax/haemothorax/chylothorax

 Cardiac perforation/cardiac tamponade

 Sepsis – late complication

 Trauma to brachial plexus, carotid A,phrenic N,airway

3. PULMONARY ARTERY CATHETERIZATION

 It is reserved only for very major cases in severely

compromised patients because cost, technical
feasibility, complications
 Swan Ganz catheter - It is balloon tipped and flow
directed by pressure recording,pressure tracing and
catheter tip
 Indicated by sudden rise in diastolic pressure
> COMPLICATION

 Minor arrhymias – most common

 Pulmonary artery rupture

 Severe arrhymias

 Death
RESPIRATORY MONITORING

1. Pulse oximetry
2. Capnography
3. Blood gas analysis
4. Lung volumes
5. Oxygen analysers
6. Airway pressure monitoring
7. Apnea monitoring
1. PULSE OXIMETRY

 Oxygen saturation – SpO2

 Normal SpO2 - 97 – 98 %

 Probe is applied at :
 finger
 nail bed,
 toe nail bed ,
 ear lobule,
 tip of nose
 Uses : detection of hypoxia intra/post operative
> ERRORS

 Carboxyhaemoglobinemia
 Methhemoglobinemia

 Anemia

 Hypovolemia and vasoconstriction

 Nail polish

 Shivering

 spO2 below 60%

 Skin pigmentation

 Dyes
2. CAPNOGRAPHY
 It is the continuous measurement of end tidal
(expired) carbon dioxide (ETCO2) and its
waveform.
 Normal: 32 to 42 mmHg (3 to 4 mmHg less than
arterial pCO2 which is 35 to 45 mmHg).
 Principle : infrared light absorbed by carbon
dioxide
 Important and sensitive monitoring
3. BLOOD GAS ANALYSIS

Precaution
 Glass syringe is preferred for sampling

 Syringes should be heparinized

 Samples should be stored in ice

 Sample from radial or femoral

 Important in
 Thoracic surgery
 Hypothermia
 Hypotensive anaesthesia
NORMAL VALUES ON ROOM AIR
pH - 7.38 to 7.42

Partial pressure of oxygen - 96 to 98 mmHg

(p02)

Partial pressure of carbon - 35 to 45 mmHg

dioxide (pCO2)

Bicarbonate (HCO3) - 24 to 28 mEq/L

Oxygen saturation (SpO2) - 95 to 98%

Base deficit -3 to + 3
CONT
 Mixed venous oxygen in the best indicator of
cardiac output i.e., tissue oxygenation
 Arterial oxygen is the better indicator of
pulmonary function.

pO2 -40 mmhg

pCO2 -46 mmhg

Oxygen saturation -75%

> OTHERS
 LUNG VOLUMES – spirometer
 OXYGEN ANALYSERS
 Monitor actual value oxygen delivered
 Fitted in inspiratory in limb of breathing circuit
 Useful in closed circuit (use low flow oxygen)
 AIRWAY PRESSURE MONITORING
 It should less than 20 – 25cm H2O
 Low pressure – disconnection
 High pressure – obstruction in tube or circuit and
bronchospasm
 4. APNEA MONITORING (MONITORING OF
RESPIRATION)
 Apnea is cessation of respiration for more than 10s.

Intubated patients
 Capnography - Most sensitive and cost effective to detect apnea
 Airway pressure monitor

Non intubated patients

 Monitoring the airflow at nostrils (acoustic probe)
 Detection of chest movements
 Impedence plethysmography – chest is encircled by a coil
 Transthoracic impedence pulmonometery

For intubated and non intubated patient

 Pulse oximeter
3. TEMPERATURE MONITORING
TEMPERATURE MONITORING
> INDICATION
 High incidence of intra-operative hypothermia
 Usually in
 Cardiac surgery
 Infant
 Children
 Adult with burns
 Febrile patient
 Malignant hyperthermia patient
> TEMPERATURE MONITORING

Core temperature monitoring sites :

 Esophagus

 Pulmonary artery

 Nasopharynx

 Tympanic membrane – most accurate for brain

temperature
1. HYPOTHERMIA
 Hypothermia may be defined as core temperature less
than 35 ℃.
 Mild : 28 – 35 ℃
 Moderate : 21 – 27 ℃
 Severe : <20 ℃

 Most common thermal perturbation seen in anaesthesia

because :
 Most anaesthetics are vasodilators, causing heat loss and
hypothermia
 Cool room temperature
 Cold intravenous fluids.
 Evaporation
> SYSTEMIC EFFECTS OF HYPOTHERMIA

CVS
Bradycardia
Hypotension
Ventricular arrhythmias if temperature is less than 28°C
Respiratory system
Respiratory arrest below 23°C
O2 dissociation curve is shifted to left

Blood
Increased blood viscosity and platelet
count
Acid base balance
 Increased solubility of blood gases

 Acidosis – increased lactic acid production d/t blood

stasis
Kidney
 Decresed GFR

No urine output at 20°C

Endocrine system
 Decreased adrenaline and
nor-adrenaline
 Hyperglycemia
> TREATMENT OF LNTRAOPERATIVE
HYPOTHERMIA

 Warm intravenous fluids

 Increase room temperature: The ideal operation theatre temperature fo
adults is 21°C and for the children 28°C
 Cover the patient with blankets
 Forced warm air by a special instrument ( Bair
Hugger airflow device)
> USES OF INDUCED HYPOTHERMIA

 Brain protection in cardiac arrest or neurovascular

surgeries. Brain can be protected for 10 minutes at
30°C
 For tissue protection against ischemia in cardiac
surgeries done on heart lung machine
NEUROMUSCULAR MONITORING
 Adductor pollicis(ulnar nerve)
 Others : Orbicularis oculi, Median nerve, Posterior tibial
nerve , Peroneal nerve

Required for :
 Myasthenia gravis
 Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy

 Train of four (TO4) is the most useful method for clinical

monitoring.
 In this 4 stimuli, each of 2 Hz for 2 sec are given and
recordings are taken.
 Normal : amplitude height of fourth and first response will be
the same. T4/T1 = 1
 Usage of depolarizing muscle relaxant – all 4 amplitude will be
decrease
 Non depolarizing muscle relaxant – first there will be decrease in
T4/T1 ratio followed by fading which means T4 response will
disappear first then T3 and so on.

 Assess reversal
 Ratio 0.7 indicate adequate reversal
 Recovery guaranteed at ratio 0.9

 Usefull in dx phase II block

(patient on Sch show fading its pathgonominic of phase II
block)
>OTHER STIMULI USED FOR NEUROMUSCULAR
MONITORING

 Single twitch
 Tetanic stimulation

 Post tetanic facilitation

 Double burst stimulation

(DBS 3,3 )
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
MONITORING
MONITORING DEPTH OF ANAESTHESIA

Clinically :
Signs and symptoms of light anaesthesia are:
 Tachycardia.
 Hypertension.
 Lacrimation.
 Perspiration.
 Movement response to painful stimuli.
 Tachypnea, breath holding, coughing, laryngospasm,
bronchospasm.
 Eye movements.
 Preserved reflexes
 EEG
 Patient evoked response

 Bispectral index

 Entropy – detection of abnormalities in EEG at

higher concentration of anaesthetic agents
 EVOKED RESPONSE
Assessing the integrity of neuronal tissues duringsurgeries
1. Somatosensory evoked pontential ( SSEP)
 Any surgeries that can compromise vascular supply of sensory tract
 Spine surgeries, repair of thoracic and abdominal aorta aneurysm, brachial
plexus exploration and surgery of brain area
2. Auditory evoked potential (AEP)
 For procedures involving auditory pathways
 Resection of acoustic neuroma and posterior fossa surgeries
3. Visual evoked potentials (VEP)
 For procedures involving visual tracts
 Optic glioma, pituitary tumours
ELECTROCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
 Other than measure depth of anesthesia , EEG also can
asses cerebral ischemia during neurovascular surgeries –
carotid endarterectomy
Effect of anesthetic agents and modalities on EEG
 All inhalational and intravenous anesthetic agents
produces biphasic pattern on EEG
 Lower dose – causing excitation( high frequency and low
amplitude waves).
 High dose - causing depression (high amplitude
and low frequency waves)
6. MONITORING BLOOD LOSS
 Estimation of blood loss is done by weighing blood soaked swabs,
sponges (Gravimetric method) and estimation of blood loss in
suction bottle (Volumetric method).
 Most accurate method is colorimetric method.

On an average (a rough guide):

 Fully soaked swab means 20 ml of loss.

 Fully soaked sponge means 100 to 120 ml of loss.

 A fist of clots means 200 to 300 ml of loss.
 7. EXPIRED GAS ANALYSIS

 There is multigas analyzer which measures

concentration of anaesthetic vapors like nitrous oxide
and inhalational agents like halothane, isoflurane etc.
 These are mass spectrometers and Raman gas
analyzers.