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 Chemical Control and
Coordination

Lecture 1

Dr. Sachin Kapur 20+ years Teaching experience

M M.Phil, Phd 4,00,000 Students & Teachers Mentored
FAMOUS FAILURES

AMITABH BACHCHAN
● Rejected by All India Radio.
● Rejected in his first audition for
being too tall and not good-looking
enough to be a star.
● Delivered 12 consecutive failures
before getting a hit film.
 Chemical Control and Coordination

Characteristic Nervous System Endocrine System

Mediator Molecules Neurotransmitters released locally in Hormones delivered to tissues

response to nerve impulses throughout the body by the
blood.

Site of mediator action Close to site of release, at a synapse; Far from site of release
binds to receptors in postsynaptic (usually); binds to receptors on
membrane. or in target cells.

Types of target cells Muscle (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal) Cells throughout the body.
cells, gland cells, other neurons.

Time to onset of action Typically within milliseconds Seconds to hours or days.

(thousandths of a second).

Duration of action Generally briefer (milliseconds). Generally longer (seconds to

days).
Chemical Control and Coordination

Gland

➢ Any cell or tissue which is secretory in nature.

Glands

Exocrine Glands Endocrine Glands

Chemical Control and Coordination

Exocrine Glands

➢ These secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions into
○ Body cavities.
○ Lumen of an organ.
○ To the outer surface of the body.
➢ Exocrine glands include sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous, and
digestive glands.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Endocrine Glands

➢ These secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial fluid surrounding
the secretory cells.
➢ From the interstitial fluid, hormones diffuse into blood capillaries and blood
carries them to target cells throughout the body.
➢ Most hormones are required in very small amounts, so circulating levels typically
are low.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Endocrine Glands

➢ The endocrine glands include the

○ Pituitary
○ Thyroid
○ Parathyroid
○ Adrenal
○ Pineal glands.
Chemical Control and Coordination
Chemical Control and Coordination

Endocrine Glands

➢ Several organs and tissues are not exclusively classified as endocrine glands
but contain cells that secrete hormones.
➢ These include the
○ Hypothalamus
○ Thymus
○ Ovaries, testes
○ Kidneys, stomach and pancreas
○ Liver and small intestine,
○ Skin, heart, adipose tissue, and placenta.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Endocrinology

➢ It is the study of structure, function of endocrine glands and diagnosis as well

as treatment of disorders of the endocrine system.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Hormone Activity

➢ Hormones travel throughout body in blood, but affect only specific target cells.
➢ Only the target cells for a given hormone have receptors that bind and recognize
that hormone.
➢ Receptors are constantly being synthesized and broken down.
➢ Generally, a target cell has 2000 to 100,000 receptors for a particular hormone.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Down-regulation

➢ If a hormone is present in excess, the number of target-cell receptors may

decrease—an effect called down-regulation.
➢ For example, when certain cells of the testes are exposed to a high
concentration of luteinizing hormone (LH), the number of LH receptors
decreases.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Upregulation

➢ When a hormone is deficient, the number of receptors may increase.

➢ This phenomenon, known as upregulation, makes a target cell more sensitive to
a hormone.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Local Hormones

➢ These act locally on neighboring cells or on the same cell that secretes them
without first entering the bloodstream.

Local Hormones

Paracrine Autocrine
Chemical Control and Coordination

Local Hormones

➢ Local hormones that act on neighboring cells are called paracrines.

➢ Local hormones that act on the same cell that secreted them are called
autocrines.
➢ One example of a local hormone is interleukin 2 (IL-2), which is released by
helper T cells during immune responses .
Chemical Control and Coordination

Local Hormones

➢ Another example of a local hormone is the gas nitric oxide (NO), which is
released by endothelial cells lining blood vessels.
➢ NO causes relaxation of nearby smooth muscle fibers in blood vessels, which in
turn causes vasodilation.
➢ The drug Viagra (sildenafil) enhances the effects stimulated by nitric oxide in
the penis.
Chemical Control and Coordination
Chemical Control and Coordination

Hormone Activity

➢ Local hormones are usually inactivated quickly.

➢ Circulating hormones may linger in the blood and exert their effects for a few
minutes or occasionally for a few hours.
➢ Circulating hormones are inactivated by liver and excreted by kidneys.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Chemical Classes of Hormones

Lipid Soluble Hormones

Water Soluble Hormones

Chemical Control and Coordination

Lipid-soluble Hormones

➢ These include
○ Steroid hormones.
○ Thyroid hormones.
○ Nitric oxide.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Steroid Hormones

➢ Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol.

➢ Each steroid hormone is unique due to the presence of different chemical groups
attached at various sites on the four rings at the core of its structure.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Lipid-soluble Hormones

➢ Two thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are synthesized by attaching iodine to the
amino acid tyrosine.
➢ The gas nitric oxide (NO) is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
➢ Its synthesis is catalyzed by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Water-soluble Hormone

➢ The water-soluble hormones include

○ Amine hormones
○ Peptide and protein hormones
○ Eicosanoid hormones.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Amine hormones

➢ Amine hormones are synthesized by decarboxylating and otherwise modifying

certain amino acids.
➢ They are called amines because they retain an amino group.
➢ The catecholamines—epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine—are
synthesized by modifying the amino acid tyrosine.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Amine hormones

➢ Histamine is synthesized from the amino acid histidine by mast cells and
platelets.
➢ Serotonin and melatonin are derived from tryptophan.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Peptide and Protein Hormones

➢ These are amino acid polymers.

➢ Smaller peptide hormones consist of chains of 3 to 49 amino acids.
➢ Larger protein hormones include 50 to 200 amino acids.
➢ Examples of peptide hormones are antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin; protein
hormones include human growth hormone and insulin.
Chemical Control and Coordination

Eicosanoid Hormones

➢ These are derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid.

➢ The two major types of eicosanoids are prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
➢ The eicosanoids are important local hormones, and they may act as circulating
hormones as well.
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