ECA

Reliability--definitions
• A measure of the ability of a system, generally given as
numerical indices, to deliver power to all points of
utilisation within acceptable standards and in amounts
desired. Power system reliability (comprising generation
and transmission & distribution facilities) can be
described by two basic functional attributes: adequacy
and security. (Cigré definition)

• Reliability is the probability of a device or a system

performing its function adequately, for the period of time
 Reliability
Reliability

Adequacy Security

• Adequacy relates to the existence of sufficient facilities within

the system to satisfy the consumer load demand at all times.

• Security relates to the ability to withstand sudden disturbances

 Definitions……contd/-
• Adequacy:
A measure of the ability of the power system to
supply the aggregate electric power and energy
requirements of the customers within
components ratings and voltage limits, taking
into account planned and unplanned outages of
system components. Adequacy measures the
capability of the power system to supply the load
in all the steady states in which the power
 Analysis of
reliability….hierarchial levels
1. Generation only (Level 1)

2. Generation + Transmission (Level 2)

3. Generation + Transmission+ Distribution (Level 3)

Analysis involving level 3 are not generally done due to

enormity of the problem.
 Reliability of a system
• A system composed of large number of
components connected in series and
parallel.
• Each component would have its own
reliability.
• Reliability of the system would depend on
the reliability of individual component.
– A chain’s strength would be governed by the
 Reliability Indices (1)
• SAIFI =System Average Interruption Frequency Index (int/yr. cust)= Total
number of customer interruptions / Total number of customers served

• SAIDI = System Average Interruption Duration Index (h/yr. cust) = Customer

interruption durations / Total number of customers served

• CAIFI = Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index (int./yr. cust) = Total

number of customer interruptions / Total number of customers interrupted

• CAIDI = Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (h/y. cust.) = Customer

interruption durations/ Total number of customer interruptions = SAIDI/SAIFI

• CTAIDI = Customer Total Average Interruption Duration Index (h/ y. cust)=

 Reliability Indices (2)
• ENS = Energy Not Supplied = (kwh/y.) = Total energy not
supplied = UE = Unserved Energy

• AENS = Average Energy Not Supplied = (kwh/y. Cust.) =

Total energy not supplied / Total number of customers
served

• LOLP = Loss of Load Probability =The probability that the

total production in system cannot meet the load demand
 Reliability Indices (3)
• Protection system
– Selectability: should operate for the conditions intended and
should not for which not intended.
– Dependability: Number of correct operation devided by number of
incorrect operations

• Other Equipments, high reliability would mean

– In repeated operations – probability that the out would be within a
narrow range.
– Low variance or standard deviation of output
Loss of Load Probability
(LOLP)
Optimal value of reliability
 Optimal value of reliability
(2)
• The costs of the producer = CR

• The costs of the consumers = CIC

• CIC = Customer Interruption Costs

(= VOLL = Value of Lost Load)

• At the optimum : ∆CR = - ∆ CIC (= -∆ VOLL)

 Time scale involved

in security analysis

Source: IEEE tutorial

2006 Delhi, Mohd. Shahidehpour
Definitions……contd/-
Security:
A measure of power system ability to withstand
sudden disturbances such as electric short
circuits or unanticipated losses of system
components or load conditions together with
operating constraints. Another aspect of security
is system integrity, which is the ability to
maintain interconnected operation. Integrity
relates to the preservation of interconnected
 Power System stability
Ability to remain in
Power System Stability operating equilibrium
Equilibrium between
opposing forces

Angle stability Voltage stability

Mid term Long term

Small signal stability Transient stability Large disturbance Small disturbance

Study period upto Study period upto Study period upto

10 secs several minutes tens of minutes
 Power System stability (contd/-)
Small signal Stability

Oscillatory instability Non-oscillatory instability

Insufficient damping torque Insufficient synchronizing torque
Unstable control action

Local plant modes Inter area modes Control modes Torsional modes
 Load forecasting------long
term
• Electric Power Survey (EPS) reports are brought out by CEA once
in five (5) years.

• Last report (17th ) released in March 2007 containing year wise

projections up to 2011-12 and perspective projections at the end of
2016-17 and 2021-22

• 18th EPS committee constituted in Jan 2010 and scheduled to give

its report by October 2011. (year wise projections up to 2016-17 and
perspective projections at the end of 2021-22 and 2026-27.)
 Generation planning and
procurement security

FA, FB and FC are the fixed costs,

VA, VB and VC the variable costs of above plants
 How many outage hours to allow?

Load should be unserved in hours when the cost of serving it would exceed
Value Of Lost Load (VOLL). Put algebraically, outage makes sense so long as
VOLL × (Outage Hours) < FA + (VA × (Outage Hours)),
 Generation planning
• In a competitive market also, the mix of
plant types are arrived at similar to
centralized planning except that it is
through a decentralized price discovery
and profitability analysis.
 Transmission planning
• Once we have the load forecast and generation
location, it is easy to identify ‘where to build lines
and how many’.

• In India the transmission planning is done as per

the Manual on Transmission Planning Criteria
prepared by CEA in June 1994
Power system operating states

Normal

Restorative Alert

In extremis Emergency
 Power system operating
states (2)
• Normal state
– All system variables are in the normal range
and no equipment is being overloaded. The
system operates in a secure manner and is
able to withstand a contingency without
violating any of the constraints.
 Power system operating
states (3)
• Alert state
– Security level falls below a certain limit of adequacy or if the
possibility of a disturbance increases due to adverse weather
conditions such as the approach of severe storms. All system
variables are still within the acceptable range and all constraints
are satisfied. However the system has weakened to a level
where a contingency may cause equipments to get overloaded
and reach an emergency state. If the contingency is very severe
we could land up directly in the in extremis state (extreme
emergency).
 Power system operating
states (4)
• Emergency state
– Sufficiently severe disturbance under alert state leads to an
emergency state. Voltages at many buses become low and
equipment loading exceeds the short term emergency ratings.
System is still intact.

– System can be restored back to alert state by emergency control

actions such as fault clearing, excitation control, fast valving,
generation tripping, generation runback, HVDC modulation and
load shedding.