Stream Gauging:

• It is a technique used to measure the discharge, or the

volume of water moving through a channel per unit
time, of a stream.

• The height of water in

the stream channel, known as a
stage or gage height, can be used to determine the
dischage in a stream.

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Stream Gauging:
• Streamflow representing the runoff phase of the
hydrological cycle is the most important basic data for
hydrologic studies.
• Streamflow is the only part of hydrological cycle that
can be measured accurately.

3
Necessity of Discharge measurement:

• By measuring the discharge in river the irrigation

water can be distributed uniformly.

• By measuring flow in rivers flood warning can be

issued.

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Necessity of Discharge measurement:

• By measuring flow in canal quantity of loses can be

known.

• The quantity of water flowing in the river helps for

future research.
Site selection for stream gauging:
• The bed and banks of the stream should be firm
and stable so as to ensure consistency of area-
discharge relationship.

• The bed and banks should be free from vegetal

growth, boulders or other obstructions like bridge
piers, etc.

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Site selection for stream gauging:

• There should be no larger overflow section at flood

stage.

• To ensure good consistency between stage and

discharge there should be a good control section far
downstream of the gauging site.

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Site selection for stream gauging:

• The section should be straight and uniform for a

length of about 10 to 20 times the width of the
stream.

• The stream gauging station should be easily

accessible.

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 Conventional Advanced
Methods Techniques

Direct Indirect
i. Velocity area methods i. Moving boat Method
using current meter
i. Slop area method

ii. Ultrasonic (Acoustic)

ii. Velocity area methods ii. By stage - discharge method
by using floats relations
iii. Electromagnetic
iii. Measurement by method
iii. By Dilution hydraulic structures
methods

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Velocity-Area Methods:
• Discharge is the product of cross-sectional area and
velocity of water;

Q=v*A
where Q = discharge [m3/s], = velocity [m/s],
v A = cross-section of flow [m2].
and

• Velocity of flow at a cross-section varies, it is not

enough to measure the velocity at a single point.

10
Velocity-Area Methods:
• Based on accuracy required, width of the
stream
is divided into a number of vertical portions.
• In each portions, velocity is measured at one or
more points along the depth to get a
representative velocity.

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Velocity-Area Methods:

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Velocity-Area Methods:
• The area of the individual portion be easily
calculated if the bed profile and stage
can are
known.

• The velocity may be measured by a conventional

method or by an advanced procedure.

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Discharge Measurement Using Artificial
Structures:
•If the physical and hydraulic conditions at
the site permit, a fixed, undeformable
structure may be constructed to measure
river flow.
• A number of hydraulic structures are used
to measure flows in field conditions
14
Weirs:
• They are used to control upstream water level
or
for measuring discharge or for both.
• They produce a critical relationship between
stage and discharge by obstructing channel flow.

• Weirs have a defined cross-section and hence

the computation of discharge is simple
15
Weirs:
• The size and cost of the structures increase
as the size of the river increases.

•Site requirements consist of a reasonably

straight approach channel which should be
free of excessive sedimentation, weeds and
other aquatic growth.

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Weirs:
•The structure should be rigid, water-tight,
normal to the flow direction, and should be
capable of passing high flows without any
damage to its body.
•The stage-discharge relation at the site
depends on the geometrical characteristics
of such a structure.

17
Weirs:

18
Flumes:
• A flume is a flow measuring structure formed by a
construction in a channel.

• The construction can be either a narrowing section of

the channel or a narrowing section in combination
with a hump in the invert.
•A unique stage-discharge relationship exists
independent of the downstream conditions.

19
Flumes:
For a flume, the discharge of an ideal
rectangular as -
fluid is expressed

here, H represents the upstream energy and b is

the typical width dimension for the particular
cross-section shape of the flume.

20
Flumes:

21
 Flumes:
By introducing suitable coefficients, this equation can
be generalized to the following form –

Where, Cv = coefficient to take in to account the

velocity head in the approach channels, Cs =
coefficient to take account of the cross-section shape
of the flume, Cd = coefficient for energy loss, and h =
depth of water, upstream of the flume, measured
relative to the invert level of the throat.
22
Dilution technique:
• Two dilution techniques are
–
(1) the steady feed method and

(2) the instantaneous, point - source time indigenous

method.

For steady feed method, a solution of tracer material with

concentration C1 is injected at the constant injection rate
QT;
23
Dilution technique:

24
Dilution technique:
• The tracer disperses laterally into the flow and tracer concentration
distribution is similar to as shown in figure.

• At some point X2 downstream, where the tracer material is

approximately uniformly mixed, the flow is sampled continuously.

25
Dilution technique:
•If the tracer mixer has properties similar to
the water, so that there are no density
gradients, vertical mixing is very rapid due
to turbulence of the flow.
• Theoretically, complete lateral mixing
occurs at X but practically it occurs between
20 to 100 times the channel widths.

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Dilution technique:
•By instantaneous injection method, a
quantity of tracer w, is injected,
instantaneously at section X and time t0.

•The cloud of tracer disperses laterally

and longitudinally as it moves
downstream.
27
Dilution technique:

28
Dilution technique:
• At the section X2, where the tracer is completely
mixed literally, the flow is sampled continuously.

• From the conservation of mass

• in which Q is nearly constant through sampling period

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Dilution technique:
The common tracers used are –

(a) Salt solutions.

(b) Radio active tracer are detected by its scintillation

detectors.

(c) Fluorescent dyes with flourometers.

30
Dilution technique:
Advantage of dilution
method-
• They condensed in closed conduits, such as
penstocks,

• Sewers pipe lines, where current-meter

measurements are difficult, and they are fast
and accurate.
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Dilution technique:
Disadvantages-

•Expensive for measuring large stream.

•Special equipments required for the

measurements of concentration.

32
Velocity Measurement by Floats:
• A float is a distinguishable article that floats on
the water surface, such as a wooden log, a
plastic bottle partly filled with water, or branch
of a tree.

• Surface or near-surface floats are used for

streamflow measurement which are wooden
cylindrical rods of nearly 0.5 m length.
33
Velocity Measurement by Floats:
•They are shaped such that they float nearly
vertically with one third of the length
protruding above the water surface.

•The floats are painted in bright colours for

easy identification in muddy or turbulent
water.
34
Velocity Measurement by Floats:
• For a float measurement, two cross-sections
sufficiently far apart on a straight reach of river are
selected.

• The upstream and downstream cross sections should

be sufficiently far apart for accurate assessment of
float travel time (3 to 5 times the width of the river or
a minimum of 20 secs travel time).

35
Velocity Measurement by Floats:
• Both the cross sections should be clearly marked by
placing markers so that the exact time when the float
crosses the cross-section can be identified.

• The upstream channel cross section should be divided

into a number (preferably an odd number) of equal
segments as practically feasible in which the floats will
be placed.

36
Velocity Measurement by Floats:
• An observer each is positioned at upstream and
downstream ends of the reach such that they are visible
to each other.

• The downstream observer acts as timekeeper and carries

a stop watch.

• Floats may be tossed from a bridge or cableway; if there

is no such facility than they can be thrown in the water
from the river bank.
37
Velocity Measurement by Floats:
• When the float crosses the upstream cross-section,
the upstream observer gives a signal to the
downstream observer who notes the time taken by
the float to cover the distance.

• The velocity of the float is equal to the distance

between the two cross-sections divided by the time
taken by the float to cover this distance.

38
Velocity Measurement by Floats:
• The mean velocity in the vertical is determined
as the float velocity multiplied by a coefficient
which varies between 0.80 and 0.85.

• This coefficient depends on the shape of the

velocity profile of the river and the depth of
immersion of the float.

39
Pitot tube:
• It is used for velocity measurements in order to calculate
discharge in laboratory flumes or vey small streams.

• It is not recommended for rivers because it is very

difficult to support it when channel is very wide and
deep.

• The head generated by Pitot tube in open channel is

generally very small due to very low velocities thus,
discharge cannot be measured accurately.
40
Pitot tube:
• Formula for
velocity
computation is -
V=(2gh)1/2
• where, h = Water
height in tube above
surface of water

41
Current Meters:
•It is used to measure velocity at a point in
the flow cross–section.

•Accurate measurements of the velocity

profile of the stream cross section are made
by current meters.

42
Working of Current Meters:
•It consists essentially of a rotating element
which rotates due to the reaction of the
stream current with an angular velocity
proportional to the stream velocity.

•The angular velocity acquired by the rotor is

proportional to the velocity of water.

43
Working of Current Meters:

• By placing a current meter at a

point in a stream and counting the
number of revolutions of the rotor
during a time interval, the velocity
of water at that point is
determined.
44
Current Meters:
There are two main types of current meters –
(a) Vertical-axis meters.

45
Vertical - Axis Meters:
•These instruments consists of a series of
conical cups mounted around a vertical axis.

•The cups rotate in a horizontal plane and a

cam attached to the vertical axis spindle
records generated signals proportional to
the revolutions of the cup assembly.

46
Vertical - Axis Meters:
• The normal range of velocities is from 0.15 to 4.0
m/sec.

• The accuracy of these instruments is about 1.5% at

the threshold value and improves t about 0.3% at
speeds in excess of 1.0 m/sec. o
• These have the disadvantage that they cannot be used
in situations where there are appreciable vertical
components of velocities.
47
Current Meters:
(b) Horizontal-axis meters.

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Horizontal - Axis Meters:
•It consists of a propeller mounted at the end
of horizontal shaft.

•These come in a wide variety of size with

propeller diameters in the range 6 to 12 cm,
and can register velocities in the range of
0.15 to 4.0 m/sec.

49
Horizontal - Axis Meters:
•These meters are fairly rugged and are not
affected by oblique flows of as much as 15°.

•The accuracy of the instrument is about 1%

at the threshold value and is about 0.25% at
a velocity of 0.3 m/sec and above.

50
Rating of the Current Meter:
The number of rotations are measured and
correlated to velocity using the formula-

• = a + bN where N is the rotation of the

vpropeller (revolutions per sec {rps}).

• and b are coefficients determined by

acalibration in an experimental flume.
51
Rating of the Current Meter:
•These constants differ from one current
meter to the other as a result of
manufacturing variations as well as change
with time due to wear and tear.

•Therefore, each current meter should be

recalibrated periodically.

52
Rating of the Current Meter:
• Considering the velocity profile with depth, average
value of velocity can be obtained at 0.6 of the depth.
i.e. V = average velocity is at about 0.6 D.

• An alternative of using the 0.6 D velocity is to take 0.2

and 0.8 velocities and obtain the averages.

• The latter method is more accurate but in a shallow

cross-section, the velocity at 0.2 D may be difficult to
measure so use a single value at 0.6 D.
53
Rating of the Current Meter:

Velocity Surface Velocity

b 0.6 D
1 D
Average V
a Vel

Propeller Rotation, N
 Measurement of Area of Flow:

1. Measurement of Width-
(Pivot point method)

• This method is based on the

principle of similar triangles.

• X and X are two points fixed

on the cross-section line on
the bank of the channel.
55
Measurement of Area of Flow:

• From point X a pivot line is erected at right

angles to cross-section XX.

• The length of the pivot line should be about half

the width of the channel or 300 m whichever is
more.
• Other extremity of the pivot line is called a pivot
point, marked P in Fig. 15.10.
56
Measurement of Area of Flow:

• At 1/5 length of the pivot line from the pivot point a

direction
line. line DD1 is drawn at right angles to pivot

• The direction line DD1 is divided in suitable parts of

equal length by points d1, d2, d3 etc. Let the length of
each part be 3 m.

• Then from similar triangles Pd1d2 and Ps1 s2 the

length of s1 s2 is 5 times the length of d1, d2 (since PX
is 5 times PD).
57
Measurement of Area of Flow:
• The length of each strip s1s2, s2s3 etc., is 15 m.

• The points etc., can be located on the cross-section line

very accurately with the help of a theodolite placed at P.

• When the gauge site is to be made permanent the points

D, d1, d2 etc., on the direction line, points and on the
cross-section line and the pivot point should be
constructed with masonry in the form of blocks with a
hole in the centre to fix a flag exactly on the point
58
 Measurement of Area of Flow:

2.Measurement of depth-

(a) Sounding rod

• It is a wooden rod 5 to 8 cm in diameter with markings on it.

A bamboo pole may also be used as a sounding rod.

• Many times flat iron of 5 cm x 0.6 cm size may also be used

for the purpose.
59
 Measurement of Area of Flow:
• The graduations are generally in tenth of a
metre.
• To prevent sinking of a rod and to achieve accuracy in
measurement the rod is provided with a flat base
plate.

• The base plate is in the form of an iron disc 10 to 15

cm in diameter attached to the lower end of the rod.

60
Measurement of Area of Flow:

(b) Eco sounder

• It is based on an electrical principle.

• It consists in transmitting a sound impulse (by a

transmitter) from the surface of water level to the bed of
the river.

• When the sound waves reflect back in the form of an echo

they are arrested by a receiver.

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Measurement of Area of Flow:

• There is an automatic arrangement for plotting

the time of transmission and the time of
reception.

• The velocity of sound in water is known (1470

m/sec).

• From this fact the depth of water is

automatically computed.

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Measurement of Area of Flow:

•This method is of
very common use on
ships for observing
depths.

• It can also be used

successfully on rivers.
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