Module in Descriptive Statistics

St.
Paul University Philippines

Graduate School
A Course Presentation in
STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION TO
STATISTICS AND
STATISTICAL
INFERENCE
Note: Most of the Slides were taken from

Elementary Statistics: A Handbook of Slide
Presentation prepared by Z.V.J. Albacea, C.E.
Reano, R.V. Collado, L.N. Comia and N.A.
Tandang in 2005 for the Institute of Statistics,
CAS, UP Los Banos
TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS ….
Definition of Statistics
plural sense: numerical facts, e.g.

number of patients in a Saint Paul
Hospital, profile of patients, etc.
singular sense: is a science that deals
with the process of collection,
presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data.
Session 1.3
Areas of Statistics
Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics

 methods  methods concerned
concerned w/
collecting, describing, and with the analysis of a
analyzing a set of data subset of data leading
without drawing to predictions or
conclusions (or inferences) inferences about the
about a large group entire set of data
Session 1.4
Example of Descriptive Statistics
Present the Philippine population by constructing a

graph indicating the total number of Filipinos counted
during the last census by age group and sex
Session 1.5
Example of Inferential Statistics
A new milk formulation designed to improve the psychomotor

development of infants was tested on randomly selected infants.
Based on the results, it was concluded that the new milk formulation is
effective in improving the psychomotor development of infants.
Session 1.6
Inferential Statistics
Larger Set
(N units/observations) Smaller Set
(n units/observations)
Inferences and
Generalizations
Session 1.7
Key Definitions
 Parameters are numerical measures

that describe the population or universe
of interest. Usually donated by Greek
letters;  (mu),  (sigma),  (rho), 
(lambda),  (tau),  (theta),  (alpha) and
 (beta).
 Statistics are numerical measures of a
sample
Session 1.8
Types of Variables
Qualitative variable VARIABLES

 Describes the quality or
character of something Qualitative Quantitative
Quantitative variable
 Describes the amount or
number of something
a. Discrete
Discrete Continuous
 countable
b. Continuous
 Measurable (measured
using a continuous scale
such as kilos, cms, grams)
c. Constant
Session 1.9
Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal
 Numbers or symbols used to classify units
into distinct categories
2. Ordinal scale
 Accounts for order; no indication of distance
between positions
3. Interval scale
 Equal intervals (fixed unit of measurement);
no absolute zero
4. Ratio scale
 Has absolute zero
Session 1.10
Methods of Collecting Data
 Objective Method
Subjective Method
Use of Existing Records
Session 1.11
Methods of Presenting Data
 Textual
 Tabular
 Graphical
Session 1.12
BASIC CONCEPTS IN
SAMPLING AND
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Note: The Slides were taken from Elementary

Statistics: A Handbook of Slide Presentation
prepared by Z.V.J. Albacea, C.E. Reano, R.V.
Collado, L.N. Comia and N.A. Tandang in 2005
for the Institute of Statistics, CAS, UP Los
Banos
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Sample
Sampling Data
Process
Inferences/Generalization
(Subject to Uncertainty)
Universe
Session 3.14
WHY DO WE USE SAMPLES?

1. Reduced Cost
2. Greater Speed or Timeliness
3. Greater Efficiency and Accuracy
4. Greater Scope
5. Convenience
6. Necessity
Session 3.15
TWO TYPES OF SAMPLES
1. Probability sample
2. Non-probability sample
Session 3.16
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Simple Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Slide No. 3.20
Session 3.17
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Most basic method of drawing a

probability sample
Assigns equal probabilities of
selection to each possible sample
Results to a simple random sample
Session 3.18
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The universe is divided into L

mutually exclusive sub-universes
called strata.
Independent simple random
samples are obtained from each Slide No. 3.14
stratum.
L L
Note: N   Nh n   nh Slide No. 3.15
h 1 h 1
Session 3.19
ILLUSTRATION
B B
C
D
Slide No. 3.13
Session 3.20
Determining Adequate
Sample Size
Sampling Formula
(Slovin’s)
N
n = -----------
1 + e 2N
Where n = sample size

N = population size
e = margin of error
Example for Slovin’s
Formula
If N = 3000 and e = .05, then n is
3000
n = -------------------
1 + (.05)2(3000)
n = 3000/8.5 = 352.94 = 353

Strata/Department Number of Number of samples
respondents
Surgery 800 94
Medical 500 59
Pedia 1000 118
Obygyney 700 82
Total 3000 353

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Adopts a skipping pattern in the selection
of sample units
Gives a better cross-section if the listing is
linear in trend but has high risk of bias if
there is periodicity in the listing of units in
the sampling frame
Allows the simultaneous listing and
selection of samples in one operation
Session 3.25
ILLUSTRATION
Systematic
Sample
Population Session 3.26

CLUSTER SAMPLING
It considers a universe divided into N
mutually exclusive sub-groups called
clusters.
A random sample of n clusters is selected
and their elements are completely
Slide No. 3.19
enumerated.
It has simpler frame requirements.
It is administratively convenient to
implement. Slide No. 3.11
Session 3.27
ILLUSTRATION
Population
Cluster Sample
Slide No. 3.18

Session 3.28
SIMPLE TWO-STAGE SAMPLING
In the first stage, the units are grouped into N sub-

groups, called primary sampling units (psu’s) and
a simple random sample of n psu’s are selected.
Illustration: 


 A PRIMARY SAMPLING
UNIT
Session 3.29
SIMPLE TWO-STAGE SAMPLING

In the second stage, from each of the n psu’s
selected with Mi elements, simple random sample
of mi units, called secondary sampling units ssu’s,
will be obtained.
Illustration:
A SECONDARY
SAMPLING UNIT
SAMPLE
Session 3.30
Types Non - Probability Sampling
Convenience sampling -used based on the convenience of

the researcher. This strategy allows the use of any
available group for the research activity
Example: To investigate the most popular noon time TV
program using telephone interview.
31
Purposive/judgemental sampling –sometimes called
deliberate sampling.The researcher relies on his
judgment as the criterion for the selection and does not
use the rules governing sampling techniques .
Example. To investigate the history of a certain place.
To investigate the effectiveness of a certain
shampoo.
32
Quota sampling – used for infinite population frames and
therefore, the researcher cannot get a random sample.
Like purposive sample, this is not a representative
sample.
Example: To investigate the DIP learning in SPUP. The
researcher will select say 50 participants in each
school/department as a quota.
33
Summary Measures
Location Variation Skewness
Maximum
Percentile
Quartile
Kurtosis
Decile Range
Minimum Coefficient of
Median
Variance Variation
Central Interquartile
Tendency Range
Standard Deviation
Mean Median Mode
Session 1.34
Measures of Central Tendency
 A single value that is used to identify

the “center” of the data
 it is thought of as a typical value of
the distribution
 precise yet simple
 most representative value of the
data
Session 1.35
Mean
 Most common measure of the center

 Also known as arithmetic average
N
X i
X1  X 2    X N
Population Mean:  i 1

N N
n
x i
x1  x2    xn
Sample Mean: x i 1

n n
Session 1.36
Mean:
• It comes into 2 different

forms:
1) Simple Mean
2) Weighted Mean
Example 1:
A study was done on 5 typical fast-food
meals in Metro Manila. The following table
shows the amount of fat, in number of
teaspoons, present in each meal. Calculate
the mean amount of fat for these 5 fast-
food meals.
Fast-food meal A B C D E
Fat (in tsp) 14 18 22 10 16

How to solve the simple
mean:
• The simple mean is obtained by
adding all the values/
observations of a certain
variable and divide the sum by
the total number of values,
cases or observations.
Fast-food meal A B C D E
Fat (in tsp) 14 18 22 10 16

• To obtain the simple mean amount
of fat for the 5 fast-food meals
• Mean = (14+18+22+10+16)/5
• Mean = 80/5 = 16
• This means to say that mean fat
content of the 5 fast-food meals
is too much.
Example 2:
• The following represents the final
grades obtained by a nursing
student one summer term:
• Anatomy (5 units) - - - 93
• Chemistry (3 units) - - - 88
• PE 2 (2 units) - - - 89
– Find the weighted average of the
student.
To solve for the weighted average
of the student we have...
wixi
Mean = ----------
w
93(5) + 88(3) + 89(2)

Mean = --------------------------
10
465 + 264 + 178 907

Mean = ----------------------- = -------- = 90.7 (Excellent)
10 10
Example 3:
• The following represents the responses of
50 randomly chosen respondents in one
item of a research questionnaire:
• Very Strongly Agree (5) - - - 17
• Strongly Agree (4) - - - 11
• Agree (3) - - - 9
• Disagree (2) - - - 12
• Strongly Disagree (1) - - - 1
– Find the weighted response of the
respondents.
To solve for the weighted
response we have...
wixi
Mean = ----------
w
5(17) + 4(11) + 3(9) + 2(12) + 1(1)

Mean = ------------------------------------------
50
85+44+27+24+1 181
Mean = ----------------------- = -------- = 3.62 (Strongly Agree)
50 50
Table of Interpretation
(5 pt. Likert Scale)
4.20 – 5.00 Very Strongly Agree
3.40 – 4.19 Strongly Agree
2.60 – 3.39 Agree
1.80 – 2.59 Disagree
1.00 – 1.79 Strongly Disagree
Properties of the Mean
 may not be an actual

observation in the data set
 can be applied in at least
interval level
 easy to compute
 every observation contributes to
the value of the mean
Session 1.46
Properties of the Mean
 subgroup means can be combined to come up

with a group mean (use weighted mean)
 easily affected by extreme values
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Mean = 5
Mean = 6
Session 1.47
Median
 Divides the observations into two equal

parts
 If the number of observations is odd, the
median is the middle number.
 If the number of observations is even, the
median is the average of the 2 middle
numbers.
~
 Sample median denoted as x
~

while population median is denoted as
Session 1.48
Median for Odd Sample
Odd???
The array for the data A is :
10, 14, 16, 18, 22

• To obtain the median fat content
of the 5 meals we have to use
the median formula for odd
sample since n = 5.
• Median = [(n + 1)/2]s
• Median = (5 + 1)/2
• Median = 3rd item = 16
Median for
Even Sample
What is
even?
The following are samples scores
obtained from a 75 item summative test:
(n= 12) 48, 53, 63, 65, 45, 47, 52, 48,
63, 54, 63, 53
Array : 45, 47, 48, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 63, 63, 63, 65
• Since n = 12 (even).
• Median = [ 6 th + 7th /2]
s s
• Median = [(53 + 54)/2] = 53.5

Properties of a Median
• may not be an actual observation in
the data set
• can be applied in at least ordinal
level
• a positional measure; not affected
by extreme values
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Median = 5
Session 1.53 TEACHING BASIC

STATISTICS ….
Mode
 occurs most frequently
 nominal average
 may or may not exist
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
No Mode
Mode = 9
Session 1.54
A set of data is said to be …
 Unimodal or monomodal
if it has only one mode.
 Example: 33, 35, 35, 38,
40, 46
 Its mode is 35.
 Bimodal if it has two

modes.
 Example: 33, 35, 35, 38,
40, 40, 46
 Its modes are 35 and 40.
 Multimodal if it has more than

two modes.
 Example: 33, 35, 35, 38, 40, 40,
46, 46, 51, 58, 58, 60
 Its modes are 35, 40, 46 and 58.
Properties of a Mode
 can be used for qualitative as

well as quantitative data
 may not be unique
 not affected by extreme values
 can be computed for
ungrouped and grouped data
Session 1.58
Properties of a Mode
 can be used for qualitative as

well as quantitative data
 may not be unique
 not affected by extreme values
 can be computed for
ungrouped and grouped data
Session 1.59
Mean, Median & Mode
Use the mean when:

 sampling stability is desired
 other measures are to be
computed
Session 1.60
Mean, Median & Mode
Use the median when:

 the exact midpoint of the
distribution is desired
 there are extreme
observations
Session 1.61
Mean, Median & Mode
Use the mode when:

 when the "typical" value is
desired
 when the dataset is measured
on a nominal scale
Session 1.62
Measures of Location
 A Measure of Location summarizes a

data set by giving a value within the
range of the data values that describes
its location relative to the entire data set
arranged according to magnitude (called
an array).
Some Common Measures:

 Minimum, Maximum
 Percentiles, Deciles, Quartiles
Session 1.63
Maximum and Minimum
 Minimum is the smallest value in the

data set, denoted as MIN.
 Maximum is the largest value in the

data set, denoted as MAX.
Session 1.64
Percentiles
 Numerical measures that give the

relative position of a data value
relative to the entire data set.
 Divide an array (raw data arranged
in increasing or decreasing order of
magnitude) into 100 equal parts.
 The jth percentile, denoted as Pj, is
the data value in the the data set
that separates the bottom j% of the
data from the top (100-j)%.
Session 1.65
EXAMPLE
Suppose LJ was told that relative

to the other scores on a certain
test, his score was the 95th
percentile.
 This means that (at least) 95%

of those who took the test had
scores less than or equal to LJ’s
score, while (at least) 5% had
scores higher than LJ’s.
Session 1.66
Deciles
 Divide an array into ten equal

parts, each part having ten
percent of the distribution of
the data values, denoted by Dj.
 The 1st decile is the 10th

percentile; the 2nd decile is the
20th percentile…..
Session 1.67
Quartiles
 Divide an array into four equal

parts, each part having 25% of
the distribution of the data
values, denoted by Qj.
 The 1st quartile is the 25th
percentile; the 2nd quartile is
the 50th percentile, also the
median and the 3rd quartile is
the 75th percentile.
Session 1.68
Measures of Variation
A measure of variation is a
single value that is used to
describe the spread of the
distribution
A measure of central tendency
alone does not uniquely
describe a distribution
Session 1.69
A look at dispersion…
Data A
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
s = 3.338
Data B
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = .9258
Data C Mean = 15.5

s = 4.57
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Session 1.70
Two Types of Measures of

Dispersion
Absolute Measures of Dispersion:
 Range
 Inter-quartile Range
 Variance
 Standard Deviation
Relative Measure of Dispersion:
 Coefficient of Variation
Session 1.71
Range (R)
The difference between the maximum and
minimum value in a data set, i.e.
R = MAX – MIN
Example: Pulse rates of 15 male residents of a
certain village
54 58 58 60 62 65 66 71
74 75 77 78 80 82 85
R = 85 - 54 = 31
Session 1.72
Some Properties of the Range
 The larger the value of the

range, the more dispersed
the observations are.
 It is quick and easy to
understand.
 A rough measure of
dispersion.
Session 1.73
Inter-Quartile Range (IQR)

The difference between the third quartile and
first quartile, i.e.
IQR = Q3 – Q1
Example: Pulse rates of 15 residents of a
certain village
54 58 58 60 62 65 66 71
74 75 77 78 80 82 85
IQR = 78 - 60 = 18
Session 1.74
Some Properties of IQR
 Reduces the influence of

extreme values.
 Not as easy to calculate
as the Range.
Session 1.75
Variance
 important measure of variation
 shows variation about the mean
N
(X i   )2
Population variance 2  i 1
N
Sample variance  (x  x)i

2
s2  i 1
n 1
Session 1.76
Standard Deviation (SD)

 most important measure of variation
 square root of Variance
 has the same units as the original data
N
(X i   )2
Population SD  i 1
N
 (x  x)i
2
Sample SD s i 1
n 1
Session 1.77
Computation of Standard Deviation
(Sample) Data: 10 12 14 15 17 18 24
n=7 Mean =16
(10  16) 2  (12  16) 2  (14  16) 2  (15  16) 2  (17  16) 2  (18  16) 2  ( 24  16) 2
s
7
 4.309
Session 1.78
Remarks on Standard Deviation

 If there is a large amount of variation,
then on average, the data values will be
far from the mean. Hence, the SD will be
large.
 If there is only a small amount of
variation, then on average, the data
values will be close to the mean. Hence,
the SD will be small.
Session 1.79
Comparing Standard Deviations

(comparable only when units of measure are the same and
the means are not too different from each other)
Data A
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = 3.338
Data B
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = .9258
Data C
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
s = 4.57
Session 1.80
Comparing Standard Deviations
Example: Team A - Heights of five marathon players in inches
Mean = 65
S =0
5”
65 “ 65 “ 65 “ 65 “ 65 “
Session 1.81
Comparing Standard Deviation

Example: Team B - Heights of five marathon players in inches
Mean = 65”
s = 4.0”
62 “ 67 “ 66 “ 70 “ 60 “
Session 1.82
Properties of Standard Deviation
 It is the most widely used measure of

dispersion. (Chebychev’s Inequality)
 It is based on all the items and is rigidly
defined.
 It is used to test the reliability of measures
calculated from samples.
 The standard deviation is sensitive to the
presence of extreme values.
 It is not easy to calculate by hand (unlike the
range).
Session 1.83
Chebyshev’s Rule
It permits us to make statements about

the percentage of observations that
must be within a specified number of
standard deviation from the mean
The proportion of any distribution that
lies within k standard deviations of the
mean is at least 1-(1/k2) where k is any
positive number larger than 1.
This rule applies to any distribution.
Session 1.84
Chebyshev’s Rule
For any data set with mean () and

standard deviation (SD), the following
statements apply:
At least 75% of the observations are
within 2SD of its mean.
At least 88.9% of the observations are

within 3SD of its mean.
Session 1.85
Illustration
At least 75%
At least 75% of the observations

are within 2SD of its mean.
Session 1.86
Example
The midterm exam scores of 100 STAT 1 students
last semester had a mean of 65 and a standard
deviation of 8 points.
Applying the Chebyshev’s Rule, we can say that:
1. At least 75% of the students had scores
between 49 and 81.
2. At least 88.9% of the students had scores
between 41 and 89.
Session 1.87
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
 measure of relative variation

 usually expressed in percent
 shows variation relative to mean
 used to compare 2 or more groups
 Formula :
 SD 
CV     100%
 Mean 
Session 1.88
Comparing CVs
 Stock A: Average Price = P50

SD = P5
CV = 10%
 Stock B: Average Price = P100
SD = P5
CV = 5%
Session 1.89
Measure of Skewness
 Describes the degree of departures of the

distribution of the data from symmetry.
 The degree of skewness is measured by
the coefficient of skewness, denoted as SK
and computed as,
3Mean  Median 
SK 
SD
Session 1.90
What is Symmetry?
A distribution is said to be
symmetric about the mean,
if the distribution to the left
of mean is the “mirror
image” of the distribution to
the right of the mean.
Likewise, a symmetric
distribution has SK=0 since
its mean is equal to its
median and its mode.
Session 1.91
Measure of Skewness
SK > 0
positively
skewed
SK < 0
negatively skewed
Session 1.92
Measure of Kurtosis
 Describes the extent of peakedness or
flatness of the distribution of the data.
 Measured by coefficient of kurtosis (K)
computed as,
N
 X  
4
i
K i 1
4
3
N
Session 1.93
Measure of Kurtosis
K=0
mesokurtic
K>0 K<0
leptokurtic platykurtic
Session 1.94

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St.

Paul University Philippines

Note: Most of the Slides were taken from

plural sense: numerical facts, e.g.

Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics

Example of Descriptive Statistics

Present the Philippine population by constructing a

Example of Inferential Statistics

A new milk formulation designed to improve the psychomotor

 Parameters are numerical measures

Qualitative variable VARIABLES

Methods of Collecting Data

Use of Existing Records

Methods of Presenting Data

Note: The Slides were taken from Elementary

WHY DO WE USE SAMPLES?

TWO TYPES OF SAMPLES

BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Simple Random Sampling

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Most basic method of drawing a

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

The universe is divided into L

Slide No. 3.13

Where n = sample size

n = 3000/8.5 = 352.94 = 353

Pedia 1000 118

Total 3000 353

Population Session 3.26

Slide No. 3.18

SIMPLE TWO-STAGE SAMPLING

In the first stage, the units are grouped into N sub-

SIMPLE TWO-STAGE SAMPLING

Convenience sampling -used based on the convenience of

Location Variation Skewness

Measures of Central Tendency

 A single value that is used to identify

 Most common measure of the center

• It comes into 2 different

Fat (in tsp) 14 18 22 10 16

Fat (in tsp) 14 18 22 10 16

93(5) + 88(3) + 89(2)

465 + 264 + 178 907

5(17) + 4(11) + 3(9) + 2(12) + 1(1)

Properties of the Mean

 may not be an actual

Properties of the Mean

 subgroup means can be combined to come up

 easily affected by extreme values

 Divides the observations into two equal

10, 14, 16, 18, 22

• Median = [(53 + 54)/2] = 53.5

Session 1.53 TEACHING BASIC

 Bimodal if it has two

 Multimodal if it has more than

 can be used for qualitative as

 can be used for qualitative as

Mean, Median & Mode

Use the mean when:

Mean, Median & Mode

Use the median when:

Mean, Median & Mode

Use the mode when: