Research Methodology

Lecture 3: Thinking Like a Researcher/ The Research Process (Ch.3 & 4)

Prof. Dr. Raghda El Ebrashi

Associate Professor of Strategic Management
Head of the Management & Organization Department
Learning Objectives
 Understand the terminologies used by researchers employing scientific thinking
 Understand the difference between concepts and constructs
 Understand the difference between moderating and mediating variables
 Discuss what you need to form a solid research
The Business Research Process

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The Research Process

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 Concepts

The Language of Theory Constructs

Research
Language
of
Research
Propositions
/ Operational
Definitions
Hypothesis

Variables

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The Language of Research
Concepts and Constructs
 A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated
with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, or behaviors.
 E.g.: brand loyalty, customer satisfaction, efficiency, poverty, gravitation, entrepreneurship.

 Constructs are mental abstractions that we use to

express ideas, people, organizations, events and objects that we are interested in.
Constructs are a way of bringing theory down to earth, helping to explain the different
components of theories, as well as measure/observe their behavior– not directly
observable.
 E.g.: attitudes, self-esteem, poverty, morale, tolerance, trust.

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Job Redesign Concepts and Constructs

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The Language of Research
Variables

Concept/Construct Variable
 A variable is any factor that Poverty Minimum income
can be controlled, changed, Job Satisfaction Productivity level
or measured. Corporate Social Responsibility Number of charity campaigns
Entrepreneurship Number of new ideas generated
per year
Gender Male/Female
Religion Religious groups
Compensation Salary

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 Types of Variables

Dichotomous Male/Female
Employed/ Unemployed
(non-overlapping)

Discrete Educational level

Religious affiliation
(distinct)

Continuous Income
Temperature

(allow decimals) Age

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Dependent and Independent Variables

Independent
Variable
(Measurable)

Increasing salaries of low-wage workers

will boost their productivity

Dependent
Variable
(Measurable)

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 Dependent Vs. Independent Variables

Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)

 Predictor  Criterion
 Presumed cause  Presumed effect
 Stimulus  Response
 Predicted from…  Predicted to….
 Antecedent  Consequence
 Manipulated  Measured outcome

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 Moderating Variables (MV)
 Moderating variables increases the predictability of the effect of the IV
on the DV.
 The switch to commission from a salary compensation system (IV) will lead to
increased sales productivity (DV) per worker, especially among younger
workers (MV).
 The loss of mining jobs (IV) leads to acceptance of higher-risk behaviors to
earn a family-supporting income (DV) – particularly among those with a
limited education (MV).

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 Intervening Variables (IVV)/ Mediating Variable

 Intervening variable (so called Mediating Variables) establish the

relationship between the IV and DV when there was no relationship before.
 The switch to a commission compensation system (IV) will lead to higher sales
productivity (DV) by increasing overall compensation (IVV).
 A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity (DV), especially when
free prizes are offered (MV). The results come from enhancing the motivation
to save (IVV).

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 The Language of Research
Theoretical vs. Operational Definitions
 For Concepts and constructs, you will need to put in your literature review the
different theoretical definitions for these concepts/constructs by authors in the
literature.
 You will also have to provide operational definitions for the reader to grasp
what you mean.
 Operationalization is a process of defining the measurement of a
phenomenon that is not directly measurable, though its existence is
indicated by other phenomena. It is the process of defining a fuzzy
concept so as to make the theoretical concept clearly distinguishable or
measurable, and to understand it in terms of empirical observations.

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Example of
Operational
Definition

Source: Wikipedia 15
 Operationa
Concept Variables
l Definition

Those who live under

$2 per day

Example of Operational Income

Those who receive a
salary less than $60 per

Definition month and spend on

more than 3 individuals

Those who didn’t

receive basic education
Poverty Access to
education
Those who are
technology illiterate

Food Those who eat less

Consumption than 3 meals per day

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How can we define the variable “class level of students”?

o Freshman • < 30 credit hours

o Sophomore • 30-50 credit hours
o Junior • 60-89 credit hours
o Senior • > 90 credit hours

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The Language of Research
Propositions and Hypothesis

 Proposition is a statement about observable phenomena

(concepts) that may be judged as true or false. It is usually
generated from the literature review:
 Secondary education increases the probability of youth employment in
the future.

 Hypothesis is when propositions are formulated for empirical

testing:
 Youth graduating from public secondary schools will be accepted in
vocational jobs.

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 Hypothesis Formats
Descriptive Research Question
 Offering discounts to  What is the effect of
mothers will offering discounts to
increase their mothers on their
purchase of Pril. purchase of Pril?
 Increasing the  Will the increase of
salaries of employee salaries
employees will lead to higher
increase their productivity?
productivity.

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The Language of Research
Theory
 Theories are the generalizations we make about variables and the
relationships among them.
 We use these generalizations to make decisions and predict
outcomes.
 A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions,
and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict
phenomena (facts).
 Hypothesis: an apple on the tree will fall on the ground after it rips.
 Theory (gravitation): E = mc2

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Example of Theory

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Scientific Reasoning: Deductive Reasoning

All employees of company X are competent

Sara is an employee of company X

Sara is competent

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 Scientific Reasoning: Inductive Reasoning

Why didn’t sales increase during our promotional event?

• Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill customer requests
during the promotional period
• A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving in time for
promotion to be effective
• A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10 days during the
promotion

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Example of Inductive
Reasoning

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Thanks!
Any questions?

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