MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn how to use logical connectives to combine
statements

• Explore how to draw conclusions using various

argument forms

• Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates

• Learn various proof techniques

• Application
 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
• Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules and
techniques to determine whether an argument is
valid (Mathematical Logic)
• Theorem: a statement that can be shown to be true
(under certain conditions)
– Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an odd
integer
• This statement is true under the condition that x is an
integer is true
 STATEMENT
A statement or proposition is declarative sentence having truth value.
Examples of statements:
Today is Saturday.
Today I have Math class.

Today I have Math class and today is Saturday.

Examples that are not statement

Where do you go?
Does Tina like apples?
Take me to the beach
Pick an apple for Tina.

Note: Questions (Interrogative) and commands(Imperative) are not statement.

 SYMBOLS FOR STATEMENT
In set we used capital letter/s to denote a certain
set while in propositions or statement we denote
lower case letter to represent a statement.
Examples:
• Let p be a statement “2 is an even number” (true)
• Let q be a statement “3 is an odd number (true)
• Let r be a statement “A is a consonant” (false)
For each sentences listed above you should be able
to determine the truth value (that is you should be
able to decide whether the statement is TRUE
(truth) or FALSE (falsity))
 QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
The words “all” “some” and “none” are examples of quantifiers. A statement
containing one or more of these words is a quantified statements.
Note: The word “some” means “at least one.”
Example:
Decide whether each statement is true or false.
1. All dogs are poodles.
2. Some books have hard covers.
3. Some cats are mammals.
4. Some cats aren’t mammals.
Solution:
5. False (because we know there is at least one dog that is not a poodle).
6. True (because we know that there is at least one book that doesn’t have a
hard cover).
7. True (because there is at least one cat that is a mammal; in fact in fact every
cat is a mammal).
8. False (because we know that it is not possible to find at least cat that isnt a
mammal).
 NEGATIONS
If p is a statement, the negation of p is
another statement that is exactly the opposite
of p. The negation of statement p is denoted
("not p").
Example:
Let p be the statement “Today is Saturday”
Then is the statement “Today is not Saturday.”
On any given day, if p is true then will be
false; if p is false, then will be true.
 NEGATION OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENT
Fact: “None” is the opposite of “at least one.”
Example:
The negation of “Some dogs are poodles” is “No dogs
are poodles.”
Notice that “Some dogs are poodles” is a statement that is
true according to our everyday experience’, and “No dogs are
poodles” is a statement that is false according to our everyday
experience.
In General: “The negation of “some A are B” is “No A are(is)
B.”
Consider this statement:
Write the negation of “Some used cars are reliable.”
Answer: ____________________________________
 NEGATION OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENT
Fact: “Some aren’t” is the opposite of “all are.”
Example:
The negation of “All goats are mammals” is “Some goats aren’t
mammals.”
Notice that “All goats are mammals” is a statement that is true
according to our everyday experience’, while “Some goats aren’t
mammals” is a statement that is false according to our everyday
experience.
In General: “The negation of “All A are B” is “Some A aren’t B.”
Consider this statement:
Write the negation of:
“All acute angles are less than in measure.”
“No triangles are quadrilaterals.”
Answer: ____________________________________
____________________________________
 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
The words “and” “or” but” “if…then” are
examples of logical connectives. They are words
that can be used to connect two or more simple
statements to form a more complicated
compound statement.
Examples of compound statements:
“Today is Wednesday and I have a Precalculus
class.”
“I’ll go shopping or I’ll go to school.”
 EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
Any two statements p and q are logically equivalent if they have
exactly the same meaning. This means that p and q will always
have the same truth value, in any conceivable situation.
Example:
1. “Today I have math class and today is Saturday” is equivalent
to “Today is Saturday and today I have math class.”
2. “I have a dog or I have a cat” is equivalent to “I have a cat or I
have a dog.”

Logical equivalence is denoted by this symbol: 

Considering the examples cited above illustrate this general fact:

“Some A are B” is not equivalent to “Some A are B.”
 TRUTH TABLE
A truth table is a device that allows us to analyze
and compare compound logic statements.

A truth table for this statement will take into

account every possible combination of the
variables being true or false, and show the truth
value of the compound statement in each case.
 CONJUNCTION STATEMENT
Let p and q be statements. The conjunction of p and q,
written p ∧ q , is the statement formed by joining
statements p and q using the word “and”
The statement p ∧ q is true if both p and q are true;
otherwise p ∧ q is false.

TRUTH TABLE FOR CONJUNCTION

 DISJUNCTION STATEMENT
Let p and q be statements. The disjunction of p and q, written p ∨ q , is
the statement formed by joining statements p and q using the word
“or”
The statement p ∨ q is true if at least one of the statements p and q is
true; otherwise p ∨ q is false.
The symbol ∨ is read “or”

TRUTH TABLE FOR DISJUNCTION

 IMPLICATION/CONDITIONAL
Let p and q be statements. The statement “if p then q” is called an
implication or condition.
The implication “if p then q” is written p q
• p q is read:
• “If p, then q”
• “p is sufficient for q”
• q if p
• q whenever p

TRUTH TABLE FOR CONDITIONAL

p is called the hypothesis, q is called the conclusion
 FORMS OF IMPLICATION/CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
Let p: Today is Sunday and q: I will wash the car. The
conjunction p  q is the statement:
• p  q : If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
1. The converse of this implication is written q  p
“If I wash the car, then today is Sunday”
2. The inverse of this implication is ~p  ~q
“If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car”
3. The contrapositive of this implication is ~q  ~p
“If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday”

Converse: Switch the hypothesis and conclusion (q  p)

Inverse: State the opposite of both the hypothesis and
conclusion. (~p~q)
Contrapositive: Switch the hypothesis and conclusion and state
their opposites. (~q~p)
 BIIMPLICATION/BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT
Let p and q be statements. The statement “p if and only if q” is called the
biimplication or biconditional of p and q
The biconditional “p if and only if q” is written p  q
p  q is read:
• “p if and only if q”
• “p is necessary and sufficient for q”
• “q if and only if p”
• “q when and only when p”

TRUTH TABLE FOR BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT

• Statement Formulas
– Definitions
• Symbols p ,q ,r ,...,called statement variables
• Symbols ~, ∧, ∨, →,and ↔ are called logical
connectives
1) A statement variable is a statement formula
2) If A and B are statement formulas, then the
expressions (~A ), (A ∧ B) , (A ∨ B ), (A → B ) and (A
↔ B ) are statement formulas
• Expressions are statement formulas that are
constructed only by using 1) and 2) above
 TAUTOLOGY
– A statement formula A is said to be a tautology if the
truth value of A is T for any assignment of the truth
values T and F to the statement variables occurring in A
Let A be the statement p q r pq ~(pq) pr (pr )~(pq)
(p  r )~(p  q). Lets or A
verify the disjunction
statement using truth
table if the statement is
tautology.

The truth table shows

that the statement
(pr)~(pq) is a
tautology.
 CONTRADICTION
– A statement formula A is said to be a contradiction if
the truth value of A is F for any assignment of the
truth values T and F to the statement variables
occurring in A.
Let A be the statement p q ~p (~pq) ~(~pq q~(~pq)
q~(~p  q). Lets or A
verify the conjunction
statement using truth
table if the statement is
contradiction.

The truth table shows that

the statement (q~(pq) is a
contradiction.
 LOGICALLY IMPLIES
– A statement formula A is said to logically imply a
statement formula B if the statement formula A → B is
a tautology. If A logically implies B, then symbolically
we write A → B

Let A be the statement p

and B be the statement
(p  q). Then lets verify
the biconditional statement
p(p  q) using truth table if
the statement is tautology
or contradiction.

The truth table shows

that the biconditional
statement p(p  q) is a
tautology.
 LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT
– A statement formula A is said to be logically equivalent to a statement
formula B if the statement formula A ↔ B is a tautology. If A is
logically equivalent to B , then symbolically we write A ≡ B (or A ⇔ B)
Example: Complete the table and Identify
any equivalencies for each statement
below

p q ~p ~q p~q ~pq ~(~pq) ~p( p~q) q~(~pq

The truth table shows no tautologies. The truth table shows the following
equivalency: p~q  ~(~pq)
 THE BASIC RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING A TRUTH TABLE FOR A COMPOUND
STATEMENT

1. The number of rows in the truth table depends upon the number of basic variables
in the compound statement. To determine the number of rows required, count the
number of basic variables in the statement, but don't re-count multiple occurrences
of a variable.
variable---2 rows
variables--4 rows
variables--8 rows
variables--16 rows and so forth.
2. The number of columns in a truth table depends upon the number of logical
connectives in the statement. The following guidelines are usually reliable.
a. There will be one column for each basic variable; and
b. To determine the number of other columns, count the number of logical
connectives in the statement; do re-count multiple occurrences of the same
connective. The “~” symbol counts as a logical connective.
In addition to the columns for each basic variable, there will usually be one column for
each occurrence of a logical connective.
3. The beginning columns are filled in so as to
take into account every possible combination of
the basic variables being true or false. Each row
represents one of the possible combinations.

4. In order to fill in any other column in the truth

table, you must refer to a previous column or
columns.
 END OF LESSON
PRACTICE EXERCISES

1.Suppose p is the statement 'You need a credit card' and q is the statement 'I have a nickel.'
Select the correct statement corresponding to the symbols ~(pq).
a. You don't need a credit card and I have a nickel.
b. It is not the case that either you need a credit card or I have a nickel.
c. You don't need a credit card or I have a nickel.
d. None of these.
2. Negate the following statement
a. “All summer days are muggy.”
b. “You wear matching socks to the interview or you don’t get hired.”

ASSIGNMENT

3. Suppose p is false, q is false, s is true. Find the truth value of (sp)(q~s)

4. Suppose p is false, q is true, r is false. Find the truth value of (p~q)  r

Next Meeting we will discuss the following topic.
1. Symbolic arguments
2. Arguments and Euler Diagram

Thank You Everyone!